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GIBSON  NATUPx-E  STUDIES 


t 


BLOSSOM  HOSTS  AND 
INSECT  GUESTS 

HOW  THE  HEATH  FA^HLY.  THE  BLUETS,  THE 

FIGWORTS,    THE    ORCHIDS    AND    SIAHLAR 

WILD     FLOWERS    WELCO.ME    THE    BEE 

THE    FLY,    THE   WASP,    THE    MOTH 

AND  OTHER  FAITHFUL  INSECTS 

%^  ^  By 

WILLIAM   HAMILTON  GIBSON 


Edited  by  ELEANOR  E.   DAVIE 


ILLUSTRATED  BY  THE  AUTHOR 


NEWSON  &  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK. 


1> 


PUBLISHERS'   NOTE 


Y^/E  are  indebted  to  the  courtesg  of  i^lessrs.  Harper  hi 

Brothers,  the  publishers  of  Mr.  William  Hamiltoii 

Gibson's  books,  for  permission  to  con^pile  Ihis  volume 

from  the  work  of  that  distinguished  author  and  artist. 


Copyright,  1880,  1882,  1886,  1890.   1891,  1897,  by  Harper  &  Brothers. 


Copyright,  1901,  by  Newson  &  Ccmpany. 


PREFACE 

''Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests"  is  an 
exposition  of  the  method  by  which  flowers  are 
fertilized,  a  subject  which  Mr.  Gibson  was  the  first 
American  to  investigate,  his  patient  study  resulting 
in  many  valuable  contributions  to  scientific  knowl- 
edge in  this  direction. 

''No  one  knew  more  of  flowers,  shrubs,  trees  and 
insects  or  of  the  special  haunts  and  homes  of  all  of 
them,  and  even  readers  to  whom  botany  is  a  sealed 
book  may  follow  him  into  the  fields  and  woods  and 
marshes  with  a  full  certainty  of  being  charmed  and 
enlightened  in  unexpected  ways.  He  was  his  own 
teacher  in  what  was  best,  and  those  who  have  the 
task  of  training  amateur  naturalists  should  see  well 
to  it  that  they  catch,  if  they  can,  the  secret  of  his 
success." 

He  not  only  ranked  high  as  a  scientist,  but 
undoubtedly  stood  at  the  head  of  the  artist-writers 
of  our  country,  "  his  graceful,  poetical  prose  being 
nearly  of  equal  value  with  his  fine  and  delicate  draw- 
ings.    His  style  is  full  of  glowing  freshness.     His 


^t>o- 


7  '^^'^S^u^. 


Treface 


mind  springs  beyond  the  liackneyed  and  common- 
place.     His  genius  is  of  the  imaginative  order." 

The  results  of  his  researches,  embodied  in  maga- 
zine articles,*  excited  marked  attention  and  did 
much  to  stimulate  inquiry  into  flower  fertilization 
among:  other  scientists,  as  well  as  to  interest  the 
general  public  by  their  novelty,  charm  and  beauty. 
In  that  shape,  however,  they  have  never  been  fully 
appreciated,  and  we  are  merely  following  out  the 
author's  own  intentions  in  bringing  this  scattered 
material  together  in  permanent  form. 

No  effort  has  been  spared  to  make  the  book 
thoroughly  comprehensive  and  in  every  way  repre- 
sentative of  the  author's  work  in  this  branch  of 
science,  which  was  so  peculiarly  his  own,  every- 
thing of  value,  both  in  the  way  of  information  and 
illustration,  that  he  ever  contributed  to  the  subject 
being  embodied  in  the  present  volume.  Care  has 
been  taken,  too,  to  preserve  the  charm  of  his  literary 
style,  no  alterations  having  been  made  in  the  text 
that  were  not  rendered  absolutely  necessary  in 
endeavoring  to  make  a  logical,  harmonious  whole 
of  scattered  articles.  A  little  new  matter  has  been 
added  to  certain  chapters  where  the  different  mem- 
bers of  a  family  showed  such  marked  individuality 

*  Afterward  reprinted  in  the  same  form. 

viii 


Treface 


that  fuller  treatment  than  that  originally  accorded 
seemed  desirable. 

The  plan  of  the  book  is  as  follows  :  First,  the 
history  of  the  discovery  of  the  method  of  flower 
fertilization  is  carefully  traced,  then  the  method  is 
worked  out  and  explained  in  the  case  of  an  abstract 
flower,  and  the  modifications  of  the  various  flower 
organs,  due  to  their  adaptation  to  their  insect  visit- 
ors, by  means  of  natural  selection,  pointed  out. 
The  remainder  of  the  book  consists  of  twenty-five 
concrete  examples  of  different  methods  of  cross- 
fertilization.  These  examples  stand  as  types  of  the 
ordinary  processes  adopted  by  nature. 

It  is  thought  that  no  method  of  preventing  self= 
fertilization  and  insuring  the  opposite  result  exists 
among  our  wild  flora  that  has  not  its  prototype  in 
these  pages.  As  Gibson  himself  savs  of  the  orchids  : 
"  Each  new  species  affords  its  new  surprise  in  its 
special  modification  in  adaptation  to  its  insect  spon- 
sors ;  "  but  the  general  method  is  based  on  one  of  the 
plans  illustrated. 

In  addition  to  furnishing  a  complete  exposition 
of  the  processes  involved,  the  book  will  be  found  a 
guide  to  the  habits  and  characteristics  of  many 
individual  species,  tables  being  appended  giving 
all    the    data    at    present    available   for   about    two 

ix 


Treface 


hundred  and  sixty  flowers.  The  matter  tabulated 
gives  such  important  points  as  family,  common  and 
botanical  names,  insect  visitors,  and  where  the 
flowers  are  highly  developed,  the  method  of  pre- 
venting or  limiting  self-fertilization. 

It  is  suggested  that  the  book  be  treated  after 
the  manner  now  employed  by  the  best  teachers  in 
dealing  with  the  English  classics  ;  that  is,  that  it 
shall  be  used  primarily  as  a  reader  and  that  the 
composition  work  shall  then  be  drawn  from  it.  The 
objection  heretofore  to  treating  scientific  books  in 
this  way  has  been  their  lack  of  literary  merit,  which 
made  them  too  poor  a  basis  for  the  study  of  English, 
which  necessarily  goes  hand  in  hand  with  composi- 
tion work.  This  objection  removed,  as  it  has  been 
in  the  present  case,  the  method  is  ideal.  The 
teacher's  edition  of  "  Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect 
Guests "  renders  such  a  course  possible  for  the 
busiest  teacher,  providing  composition  outlines  and 
all  other  necessary  aids  for  doing  satisfactory  work 
with  the  least  possible  expenditure  of  time  and 
labor. 

Ruskin  says:  '*The  more  I  think  of  it,  I  find  this 
conclusion  more  impressed  upon  me,  that  the  great- 
est thing  a  human  soul  ever  does  in  this  world  is  to 
see  something.    .    .    .    Hundreds  of  people  can  talk 


Treface 


for  one  who  can  think,  but  thousands  can  think  for 
one  who  can  see.  To  see  clearly  is  poetry,  prophecy 
and  religion — all  in  one."  No  study  that  could  be 
named  offers  such  a  reward  to  keen  observation  as 
this  subject  of  the  fertilization  of  flowers,  for  so 
little  of  the  vast  scientific  territory  that  it  covers 
has  been  explored  that  it  is  quite  possible  for  any 
ordinarily  faithful  student  to  add  something  to  the 
world's  knowledge  of  the  laws  that  govern  it. 

E.  E.  D. 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 

PAGE 

The  Discoveries  of  Four  Great  Botanists;  being  the  history  of 

the  discovery  of  the  process  of  cross-fertilization.  i 

How  the  Flowers  Woo  the  Insects;  wherein  is  discussed  the 
degree  to  which  adaptation  to  an  insect  may  be  carried, 
and  the  laws  governing  it.  19 

The    Barberry   Family:     The    Barberry's  Welcome  to    Master 

Bombus.  37 

The  Pulse  Family:     The  Honeyed  Clover— The  Beggar's  Tick.     43 
The  Evening  Primrose  Family:     The   Evening  Primrose  and 

the  Hovering  Moth.  49 

The  Noonday  Lesson  of  the  Primrose.  57 

The  ]\Iadder  Family:     The  Riddle  of  the  Bluets  Guessed  by 

both  Bees  and  Butterflies  61 

The  Compositie   Family:     Compositas  Manners  and   now  they 

Charm  the  Insects.  67 

The  Heath  Family:     The  INIountain  Laurel's  Embrace.  71 

Andromeda's  W'him.  75 

The    Figwort    Family;     The    Homely    Figwort    Attractive   to 

Mistress  Wasp.  79 

The  Wood-Betony,  a  Protege  of  the  Bumblebee.  85 

The  Mint  Family:     Sage  Tea  for  the  Bees^Horse-Balm  Honey.     91 

The  Milkweed  Family. — The  Milkweed:  a  Bluebeard  Blossom.     97 

Bluebeard's  Methods.  103 

The    Arum     Family:     The    Lords    and    Ladies    of    the    Arum 

Family.  109 

The  Iris  Family :     The  Swaying  Iris.  115 

The  Lily  Family:     The  Blazing-Star  and  Other  Lilies.  119 

The  Canada  Lily  and  its  Cousins  (The  Fire  Lily  and  the 
Bermuda  Lily)— The  Dog-Tooth  Violet. 
The  Orchid  Family :     Orchid  Blossoms  and  how  they  differ  from 

other  flowers.  125 

The  Showy  Orchid.  129 


Tjble  of  Contents 


PAGE 


The  Purple-Fringed  and  the  Ragged  Orchid.  135 

The  Great  Green  Orchis  and  the  Rattlesnake-Plantain.  141 

Arethusa  and  Pogonia.  jej 

The  Moccasin-Flower.  j^^ 

Nature's  Inexhaustible  Treasures.  T^y 

Supplement.  ,w^ 

Index. 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

Full-page  Illustrations 

PAGE 

William  Hamilton  Gibson.  Frontispiece 

A  Honey-Dew  Picnic.  9 

In  Archin'  Bowers  (The  Barberry).  39 

The  Evening  Primrose.  53 

How  Bluets  are  Fertilized.  63 

Method  of  Pollination  in  the  Figwort.  81 

The  Milkweed  as  Bluebeard.  105 

The  Showy  Orchid.  131 

The  Rattlesnake-Plantain.  149 

The  Arethusa.  i53 

The  Moccasin-Flower.  163 

Text  Illust?-atiOfis 

Nature's  Garden.  i 

Cleistogamous  Buds  of  the  Violet.  16 

Autumn  Sharpshooters.  17 

Tail-piece  (Vase  of  Flowers).  18 

Head-piece  (Butterflies  about  a  Plant).  19 

A  Woodland  Path.  21 

Companions.  31 

Tail-piece  (Drinking  the  Health  of  the  Jolly  Apis).                            36 

Head-piece  (Barberry  Blossoms).  37 

Tail-piece  (Bees).  42 

Head-piece  (Clover).  43 

The  Beggar's  Tick.  45 

Stick-Seed  Plants  of  the  Autumn  Woods.  47 

Tail-piece  (Landscape).  48 

Head-piece  (Primroses).  49 
Moths  Avhich  Feed  upon  the  Primrose  Buds  issuing  from  their 

Cocoons.  54 


List  of  fllnsfrjtions 


PAGE 

55 


Varying  Buds  of  the  Primrose 

Tail-piece  (enlarged  Primrose  Moth).  56 

Head-piece  (Noonday  Primroses).  57 

Tail-piece  (Moth  Visitor  of  the  Primrose).  60 

Tail-piece  (Butterfly).  66 

Head-piece  (Brown-Eyed  Susan).  67 

Tail-piece  (Seed  Tufts  of  the  Groundsel  Tree).  70 

Head-piece  (Mountain  Laurel).  71 

Tail-piece  (Harebell).  74 

Head-piece  (Andromeda).  75 

Tail-piece  (Landscape).  7« 

Head-piece  (Figwort).  79 

Tail-piece  (Conventionalized  Figwort).  84 

Head-piece  (Wood-Betony).  85 
Tail-piece  (Foxglove) 


90 


Head-piece  (Landscape).                                                                   '  91 

Collinsonia,  or  Horse-Balm.  95 

Tail-piece  (Bee).  96 

Head-piece  (Milkweed).          .  97 

Tail-piece  (Milkweed  Down).  102 

Head-piece  (Milkweed  Pods).  103 
Tail-piece  (Dogbane  and  its  Victim). 
Head-piece  (the  Calla). 

Swamp-Cabbage.  113 

Tail-piece  (Landscape).  114 

Head-piece  (Iris).  115 

Tail-piece  (Iris  Leaves).  iiS 
Head-piece  (Blazing-Star  and  Arethusa  Blossoms), 
Fire  Lilies. 

Tail-piece  (Solomon's-Seal). 
Head-piece  (Orchid  Blossoms). 

Tail-piece  (Orchid).  128 

Head-piece  (Orchids).  129 

Tail-piece  (Landscape).  134 

Head-piece  (Ragged  Orchid).  135 

Tail-piece  (Butterfly).  140 

Head-piece  (Great  Green  Orchis).  141 

Tail-piece  (Landscape).  150 

Head-piece  (Orchids).  151 

Tail-piece  (Landscape).  156 


loS 
109 


119 
121 

124 
125 


List  of  Illustrations 


PAGE 

Head-piece  (White  Cypripedium).  157 

Tail-piece  (Landscape).  166 

Head-piece  (Flowers  Welcoming  Butterfly).  167 

Tail-piece  (Dicentra).  169 

Figures  s/iow/ng  principally  the  Structure  and  Method  of 
Pollination  of  the  7>arious  Flowers 
An  abstract  Flower.  3 
Figures  showing  historical  progression  in  the  discoveries  relat- 
ing to  Flower  fertilization.  4 
Figure  illustrating  Grew's  idea  of  how  Flowers  were  fertilized.  5 
Figure  showing  condition  where  self-fertilization  is  impossible.  7 
Figure  showing  mechanical  method  of   preventing  self-fertil- 
ization. 10 
Figure  showing  conditions  necessitating  insect  intervention.  13 
Stamens.  25 
Varying  Flower  organs.  26 
Figures  illustrating  method  of  fertilization  in  the  Barberry.     40,  41 
Varying  Buds  of  the  Primrose.  51. 
Figure  showing  the  "worm  i'  the  bud"  in  the  Primrose.  52 
Figures  showing  two  forms  of  Flowers  produced  by  the  Bluets.  61 
Cross-section  of  Brown-Eyed  Susan.  68 
Figures  showing  Compositae  method  of  fertilization.  69 
Figure  showing  disposition  of  Stamens  in  the  Laurel.  72 
Figure  showing  action  of  Stamens  during  visit  of  a  Bee.  73 
Figures  illustrating  structure  of  Andromeda.  77 
Figures  showing  methods  of  Wasp  in  visiting  Figwort.              82,  83 
Seed-Pod  of  the  Figwort.  83 
Figures  showing  structure  and  process  of  fertilization  of  the 

Sage.  93 
Figures  showing  structure  and  method  of  fertilization  of  the 

Horse-Balm.  94 

Figures  illustrating  structure  of  the  Milkweed.  loi 

Figures  illustrating  structure  of  the  Arum.  no 

Figures  illustrating  method  of  fertilization  of  the  Arum.  in 

Figures  illustrating  method  of  fertilization  of  the  Iris.  117 

Figures  illustrating  structure  of  the  Blazing-Star.  120 

Figures  illustrating  structure  of  an  Orchid.  126 

Figures  showing  columns  of  the  Orchids.  127 

An  Orchid  Seed-Pod.  128 

xvii 


List  of  Illustrations 


PAGE 

Figures  showing  the  structure  of  the  Showy  Orchid.  130 

Figures  showing  the  Pollen  of  the  Showy  Orchid.  130 

Figures  showing  drooping  tendency  of  Pollinia  of  the  Showy 

Orchid.  132 

Figures   showing    the    method   of    Pollination    of    the    Showy 

Orchid.  132,  133 

Figure  showing  the  structure  of  the  Purple-Fringed  Orchid.        136 
Figure  showing  the  structure  of  the  Ragged  Orchid.  137 

Figure  illustrating  structure  of  the  Ragged  Orchid  (side  view).    138 
Figures    illustrating    method   of    fertilization  of    the    Ragged 

Orchid.  139 

Figures  illustrating  structure  of  the  Tubercled  Orchid.  140 

Figure  showing  the  structure  of  the  Great  Green  Orchis.  142 

Figures  showing  method  of  its  fertilization.  144 

Figures  showing  the  structure  of  the  Rattlesnake-Plantain.  145 

Figures  showing  disposition  of  the  pollen  in  the  Rattlesnake- 
Plantain.  146 
Figures  illustrating  method  of  pollination  in  the  Rattlesnake- 
Plantain.  147 
Figure  showing  tongue  of  a  Bee  extended  and  folded  beneath 

the  head.  148 

Figures  showing  method  of  fertilization  of  the  Arethusa.  154 

Figure  giving  profile  view  of  the  Pogonia.  155 

Figures  illustrating  method  of  pollination  of  the  Pogonia.  156 

Figure  showing  structure  of  the  Pink  Moccasin-Flower.  158 

Cross-sections  of  the  Moccasin-Flower  showing  Bee  within.     160,  161 
Cross-section  of  Moccasin-Flower  showing  Bee  in  contact  with 

Stigma.  164 

Figure  showing  Bee  raising  Anther  Lid  of  the  Moccasin-Flower.  165 


Let  us  then  content  ourselves  no  longer  with 
Deing  mere  '4)otanists"  —  historians  of  structural 
facts.  The  flowers  are  not  mere  comely  or  curious 
vegetable  creations,  with  colors,  odors,  petals,  sta- 
mens, and  innumerable  technical  attributes.  The 
wonted  insio^ht  alike  of  scientist,  philosopher,  the- 
ologian, and  dreamer  is  now  repudiated  in  the  new 
revelation.  Beauty  is  not  "  its  own  excuse  for 
being,"  nor  was  fragrance  ever  ''  wasted  on  the  desert 
air."  The  seer  has  at  last  heard  and  interpreted  the 
voice  in  the  wilderness.  The  flower  is  no  lonofcr  a 
simple  passive  victim  in  the  busy  bee's  sweet  pillage, 
but  rather  a  conscious  being,  with  hopes,  aspi- 
rations, and  companionships.  The  insect  is  its 
counterpart.  Its  fragrance  is  but  a  perfumed 
whisper  of  welcome,  its  color  is  as  the  wooing 
blush  and  rosy  lip,  its  portals  are  decked  for  his 
coming,  and  its  sweet  hospitalities  humored  to  his 
tarrying,  and  as  it  finally  speeds  its  parting  affinity, 
it  rests  content  that  its  life's  consummation  has  been 
fulfilled. 

William  Hamilton  Gibson. 


The  .^'>^.    -<.^^>7-"^-'-v'"- 

I  RII  S  or  TOUT'  L      •  ^^^d' 


Disc()\ 
Grevi  B(M^v\isrs 

In  "the  enchanted  world 
of  botany,  wheie  the  flow  eis, 
for  1  easons  of  then  own, 
stri\e  to  glow  houily  moie 
beautiful." — Sir  Edwin  Ar- 
nold. 


^-  'J-J 


r 


^-.j^.?'^;^r> 


^v- 


^-  i-hV.^^.P^^- 


WoyiDERFUL  ?iS  are  the  revelations  of  the  "old 
botany "  regarding  the  exquisite  structure  of  the 
flowers,  they  are  as  nothing  compared  with  the 
marv^els  which  the  "new  botany"  has  to  rev^eal. 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

The  '*  old  botany "  concerned  itself  with  the 
flowers  only  after  they  were  dead — that  is,  plucked 
from  the  stalk — and  then,  having  analyzed  or  sepa- 
rated them  into  their  parts,  asked  no  further  ques- 
tions about  them.  The  **new  botany,"  on  the 
contrary,  concerns  itself  with  the  flowers  as  indi- 
viduals, studies  them  in  their  haunts,  and  inquires 
into  their  habits  of  life  and  the  purpose  of  their 
existence. 

A  parallel  to  these  two  methods  of  study  is  found 
in  the  ornithological  field — the  early  ornithologists 
contenting  themselves  with  shooting  and  dissecting 
their  bird,  and  the  later  investigators  studying  it 
while  on  the  wing  or  occupied  with  nesting  duties. 

The  superiority,  both  in  interest  and  value,  of 
the  knowledge  of  the  living  flower  or  the  living 
bird  over  that  of  the  dead  specimen  need  not  be 
demonstrated. 

In  order  to  appreciate  fully  the  contrast  between 
these  widely  dissimilar  schools  of  inquiry,  it  is  well 
to  trace  briefly  the  progress,  step  by  step,  from  the 
consideration  of  the  mere  anatomical  and  physio- 
logical specimen  of  the  seventeenth  century  botanist 
to  the  conscious  blossom  of  to-day  with  its  embodied 
hopes,  aspirations,  and  welcome  companionship. 

Most  of  my  readers  are  familiar  with  the  general 

2 


The  Discoveries  of  Four  Great  botanists 


Fig. 


construction  of  a  flower,  but  in  order  to  insure  such 
comprehension,  it  is  well,  perhaps,  to  freshen  our 
memory  by  reference  to 
the  accompanying  dia- 
gram. Fig.  I,  of  an  ab- 
stract flower,  the  various 
parts  being  indexed. 

The  calyx  usually  en- 
closes the  bud,  and  mav  be 
tubular    or    composed    of 

separate  leaves  or  sepals,  as  in  a  rose.  The  corolla, 
or  colored  portion,  may  consist  of  several  petals,  as 
in  the  rose,  or  of  a  single  one,  as  in  the  morning- 
glory.  At  the  centre  is  the  pistil,  or  pistils,  which 
form  the  ultimate  fruit.  The  pistil  is  divided  into 
three  parts — ovary,  style,  and  stigma.  Surround- 
ing the  pistil  are  the  stamens,  few  or  many,  the 
anther  at  the  extremity  containing  the  powdery 
pollen. 

The  botanists  of  a  thousand  years  ago  could  have 
readily  named  these  parts,  but  regarding  their  rela- 
tion to  each  other,  they  could  have  told  you  nothing. 

GREIV  EXPLAIXS  THE  RELATION  OF  STAMENS  AND  PISTILS 

The  first  observer  to  give  to  the  world  any  in- 
formation on  this  subject  was  Nehemias  Grew,  who 
announced   m    1682   that  it  was  necessary    for  the 

3 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


pollen  of  a  flower  to  reach  the  stigma  or  summit 
the  pistil  in  order  to  insure  the  fruit. 

I     have    indicated    his    claim    pictorially    at 
Fig.  2,  in  the  series  of  historical  progression. 


of 

A, 

So 


Fig.  2. 

radical  was  this  ''theory"  considered  that  it  precipi- 
tated a  lively  discussion  among  the  wiseheads,  which 
was  prolonged  for  fifty  years,  and  was  only  finally 

4 


The  TDisaroeries  of  Four  Great  "Botanists 


settled  by  Linnaeus,  who  reaffirmed  the  facts  de- 
clared by  Grew,  and  verified  them  by  such  absolute 
proof  that  no  further  doubts  could  be  entertained. 
The  inference  of  these  early  authorities  regarding 
this  process  of  fertilization  or  pollination  of  the 
stigma  is  perfectly  clear  from  their  statements.  The 
stamens  in  most  flowers  were  seen  to  surround  the 
pistil,  ''  and,  of  course,  the  presumption  was  that  they 
naturally  shed  the  pollen  upon  the  stigma,"  as  illus- 
trated at  B,  Fig.  2  and  in  Fig.  3.  The  construction 
of  most  flowers  certainly  seems  designed  to  fulfil, 
and  frequently  does  fulfil,  this  end,  but  Nature  does 
her  best  to  prevent  such  an  occurrence,  favoring  a 
very  different  process. 

This  theory  might  account,  then,  for  the  functions 
of  the  stamens  and  pistil  ;  but  what  relation  did 
color,  fragrance,  honey,  and 
insect  association  bear  to  this 
problem  of  seed  production  ? 
Had  they  anything  to  do  with 
it,  and  if  they  had,  what  part 
did  they  play  ? 

SOME  EARLY  SPECULATIONS 

Some   of  the  early  specula- 
tions 


Fig.  -x. 


rea^ardinof    these     phe- 
curious. 

5 


nomena    were    very 


Patrick     Blair,    for 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

instance,  claimed  that  "  honey,"  or,  more  properly, 
nectar,  ''  absorbed  the  pollen,''  and  thus  fertilized 
the  ovary.  Pontidera  thought  that  its  office  was 
to  keep  the  ovary  in  a  moist  condition.  Another 
botanist  argued  that  it  was  ''  useless  material  thrown 
off  in  process  of  growth."  Krunitz  noted  that  "  bee- 
visited  meadows  were  most  healthy,"  and  his  infer- 
ence was  that  "  honey  was  injurious  to  the  flowers, 
and  that  bees  were  useful  in  carrying  it  off "  !  The 
great  Linnaeus  confessed  himself  puzzled  as  to  its 
function. 

SPRENGEL  MAKES  KNOWN  OTHER  FLORAL  SECRETS 

For  a  period  of  fifty  years  the  progress  of  inter- 
pretation was  completely  arrested.  The  flowers 
remained  without  a  champion  until  1787,  when 
Sprengel  began  his  investigations. 

He  labored  on  the  work  of  interpretation  for  two 
or  three  years,  and  at  length  his  researches  were 
given  to  the  world.  In  a  volume  bearing  the  vic- 
torious title,  ''The  Secrets  of  Nature  in  Forms  and 
Fertilization  Discovered,"  he  presented  a  vast  chron- 
icle of  astonishing  facts.  The  previous  discoveries 
of  Grew  and  Linnaeus  were  right  so  far  as  they  went 
— viz.,  the  pollen  must  reach  the  stigma  in  order 
that  the  flower  might  produce  seed,  but  those  learned 
authorities  had  missed  the  true  secret  of  the  process. 

6 


The  Discoveries  of  Four  Great  "Botanists 


Fig. 


Sprengel  pointed  out  that  in  many  flowers  the 
stamens  were  far  below  the  stigma,  as  shown  in  C, 
Fig.  2  and  in  Fig.  4.  How,  then, 
could  the  pollen  reach  the  stigma? 
Clearly  not  in  the  manner  sug- 
gested by  Grew  and  Linnaeus. 

Sprengel  partially  solved  this 
mystery.  He  cast  a  ray  of  light 
into  the  darkness,  but  it  was 
not  stronof  enouirh  to  reveal  the  whole  truth. 

He  announced  the  startling  theory  that : 

I.  Flowers,  which,  from  their  structure,  are  un- 
able to  fertilize  themselves,  are  fertilized  by  insects. 

n.  That  all  such  flowers  contain  nectar,  which 
is  food  for  insects,  and  that,  in  obtaining  this  food, 
the  insects  brush  the  pollen  from  the  anthers  with 
the  hairy  parts  of  their  bodies.  As  they  fly  away, 
they  necessarily  come  in  contact  with  the  stigma, 
which  scrapes  off  the  pollen  they  have  just  collected 
and  is  thus  fertilized.  D,  Fig.  2,  represents  the 
process  suggested. 

This  theory,  he  claimed,  would  explain  also  the 
presence  of  color  and  fragrance  * — both  of  these 
attributes  serving  to  attract   insects,  the  color   also 

*No  sooner  was  this  fact  asserted  than  it  was  urged  that  certain 
flowers,  which  Sprengel  afterward  called  ''  Shein  saft  bhtmen,''  or 
sham-nectar   producers,    of   which    the    Orchis   tnorio    is    a    good 

7 


blossom  Hosts  Jini  Insect  Ciiests 


pointing  the  way  to  the  nectar^'* — the  spots,  rings, 
and  converging  Hnes  on  the  petals  constituting  so 
many  guide-posts  on  the  road  to  the  nectary. 

THE   WEAK  POJXTS  IX  SPREXGEL'S  THEORY 

Why  was  Sprengel's  seeming  victory  an  empty 
one  ?  All  that  he  stated  about  nectar,  fragrance, 
and  color  is  true.  These  floral  attributes  are  the 
result  of  adaptation  to  insects,  and  have  been  ac- 
quired for  the  special  purpose  of  attracting  them. 
His  theory  fitted  perfectly,  too,  the  problem  shown 
in  C,  Fig.  2  and  in  Fig.  4.  An  insect  could  with- 
out doubt  fertilize  such  a  flower  with  its  own  pollen, 
but  Sprengel's  carefully  noted  facts  showed  only  too 
plainly  that  there  were  many  other  flowers  incapable 
of  fertilizing  themselves,  and  yet  quite  as  incapable 
of  being  fertilized  in  the  way  he  had  described. 

For  instance,  he  was  met  at  every  hand  by  floral 
problems,   such   as  are  shown  at  E  and  F,  Fig.  2, 


example,  possessed  perfect  nectar  guides,  and  yet  produced  no  nectar. 
Sprengel  supposed  that  these  plants  existed  by  an  organized  system 
of  deception,  by  leading  the  insects  to  suppose  that  nectar  was  con- 
cealed in  their  depths,  and  thus  inducing  them  to  enter  and  perform 
the  service  of  the  transfer  of  pollen,  and  then  cheating  them  of  their 
reward.  Darwin,  however,  showed  that  the  nectar  in  Orchis  morio 
was  contained  in  the  upper  and  lower  tissues  of  the  corolla  ;  he  also 
explained  the  reason  for  this  concealment.  (See  page  27.)  Many 
flowers  produce  quantities  of  pollen  and  little  or  no  nectar.  Such 
flowers  are  especially  adapted  to  pollen-gathering  insects. 

*  Evil-smelling  flowers,  like  the  trillium,  attract  carrion-loving 
flies — the  vile  odor  of  these  blossoms  being  the  result  of  adaptation 
to  this  special  class  of  insects. 


ei 


A  HONEY-DEW   PICNIC 


"Blossom  Hosts  Jjui  Insect  Guests 


Fig.  5. 


where  the  pollen  ripens  before  the  stigma  matures. 
In  many  cases,  too,  the  pollen-bearing  stamens  are  all 
in  one  flower,  while  the  pistils  are  in 
others,  as  in  the  cucumber  and  Indian 
corn,  and  in  some  instances,  as  in  the 
palms  and  willows,  on  different  plants. 
A  purely  mechanical  method  of  pre- 
ventinof  self-fertilization  is  shown  in 
Fig.  5.  These  phenomena  are,  however, 
all  of  one  class.  When  the  method  of 
fertilization  in  one  case  is  understood,  it  may  be 
applied  to  all. 

Under  the  conditions  presented  at  E  and  F,  if  the 
insect  did  deposit  the  flower's  pollen  on  its  own 
stigma,  the  pollen  would  fail  in  its  mission,  since 
the  stigma  would  not  yet  have  reached  the  point 
where  it  could  make  use  of  the  gift.  The  reverse 
problem  also  faced  him,  the  pollen  often  being 
retained  within  the  anthers  until  the  stigma  withers. 
In  spite  of  these  facts,  he  saw  that  this  class  of 
flowers  continued  to  exist  and  to  produce  seed,  but 
their  method  of  doing  it  steadily  eluded  him. 

In  addition  to  this  weakness  in  SprengeFs  theory, 
there  was  yet  another  defect.  Sprengel  could  give 
no  reason  why  insect  fertilization  was  more  desirable 
than  self-fertilization.      Why  should  the  flowers  be 


The  Uiscovcrics  of  Four  Great  botanists 

at  such  pains  to  attract  the  insects  when  by  a  differ- 
ent arrangement  of  their  internal  economy  they 
might,  as  other  blossoms  frequently  do,  fertilize 
themselves  ? 

''  Let  us  not  underrate  the  value  of  a  fact ;  it  will 
one  day  flower  in  a  truth."  The  defects  in  Spren- 
gel's  work  were,  after  all,  not  actual  defects.  The 
error  lay  simply  in  his  interpretation  of  the  facts 
which  he  had  been  at  such  i)ains  to  gather. 

He  and  his  followers  heard  faint  whisperings  of 
the  truth  which  would  have  solved  all  difficulties. 
But  they  heard  whisperings  only — they  never  real- 
ized the  whole  of  the  deep-laid  plan. 

DAR irJX  S  REVELA TIOXS 

It  was  not  until  the  inspired  insight  of  Darwin, 
as  voiced  in  his  "Origin  of  Species,"  contemplated 
these  strange  facts  and  inconsistencies  of  Sprengel 
that  their  full  significance  and  actual  value  were 
discovered  and  demonstrated,  and  his  remarkable 
book,  forgotten  for  seventy  years,  at  last  appre- 
ciated for  its  true  worth.  Alas  for  the  irony  of 
fate  !  Under  Darwin's  interpretation,  the  very  "  de- 
fects "  which  had  rendered  Sprengel's  work  a  failure 
became  the  absolute  witness  of  a  deeper  truth 
which  Sprengel  had  failed  to  discern. 

One  more  short  step  and  he  would  have  reached 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Gnests 

the  goal.  But  this  last  step  was  reserved  for  the 
later  seer. 

Darwin  took  the  double  problem  of  Sprengel,  as 
shown  at  E  and  F,  Fig.  2,  and  by  the  simple  draw- 
ing of  a  line,  as  it  were,  as  in  G  and  H,  instantly 
reconciled  all  the  previous  perplexities  and  incon- 
sistencies, thus  demonstrating  the  fundamental  plan 
involved  in  floral  construction  to  be  not  merely 
"insect  fertilization  "  of  the  individual  flower,  the 
fatal  postulate  assumed  by  Sprengel,  but  "cross-fer- 
tilization "  by  insects,"  the  carrying  of  the  pollen 
from  flower  to  flower,  either  of  the  same  plant  or  of 
different  plants — a  fact  which,  singularly  enough, 
Sprengel's  own  pages  proved,  but  which  he  only 
dimly  suspected.  Fig.  6  shows  the  same  condition 
as  represented  by  G  and  H,  Fig.  2. 

While  the  stigma  of  G  is  immature  and  cannot 
avail  itself  of  the  pollen  in  its  own  flower,  the  stigma 
of  H  is  fully  developed,  while  its  pollen-bearing 
anthers  have  withered. 

An  insect — let  us  say  Bombus — however,  can 
readily  remedy  this  difficulty.  Crawling  into  the 
nectary  of  G,  he  gets  himself  well  powdered  with  its 
pollen,  which  he  forthwith  carries  to  the  stigma  of 

*  Insects  are  by  no  means  the  only  agents  which  nature  employs 
in  this  work  of  pollen  transfer — birds,  wind,  and  water  also  assist  in 
the  work ;  but  it  is  with  insects  as  the  chief  agents  that  this  book  is 
concerned. 

12 


The  ^discoveries  of  Four  Great  botanists 


H,  and  thus  fertilizes  it.  Doubtless  he  will  do  the 
same  for  the  stio:ma  of  G  when  it  matures. 

Not  only  did  Darwin's  theory  solve  the  first  mys- 
tery which  Sprengel  left  unexplained,  but  it  was 
equally  successful  in  untanglincr  the  second  knot. 

No  reason  could  be  given  why  fertilization  by 
insects,   according  to  the   theory  of  Sprengel,  was 


G  Fig.  6.  H 

preferable  to  self-fertilization  ;  but,  as  Darwin  soon 
proved  by  actual  experiment,  cross-fertilization  is  a 
distinct  advantage  to  the  flower,  in  the  competitive 
struggle  for  existence,  all  cross-fertilized  flowers  pro- 
ducino^  healthier  seed  than  self-fertilized  ones.  Cross- 
fertilized  flowers,  therefore,  are  the  final  result  of 
natural  selection,  or  the  law  of  the  survival  of  the 
fittest. 

HOW  X AT  URAL    SELECTIOX  PERFECTS    THE  FLOWERS 

To  illustrate  how  this  law  has  worked  in  the  de- 
velopment of  cross-fertilized  flowers,  let  us  suppose, 

13 


"Blossom  Hosts  aiui  Insect  Guests 


what  has,  without  doubt,  actually  been  the  case, 
that  the  early  ancestors  of  a  certain  flower  were 
self-fertilized.  At  length,  among  other  continual 
variations,*  certain  seedlings  showed  the  singular 
variation  of  ripening  their  pollen  in  advance  of  their 
stigmas  or  in  other  ways  developed  peculiarities 
which  prevented  self-fertilization.  At  the  same 
time  that  they  began  to  develop  this  condition,  the 
flowers  began  to  secrete  nectar  in  their  cups.  A 
passing  insect,  lured  by  the  sweets,  entered  a  blos- 
som, and  while  sipping  its  honey  dew  became  dusted 
with  its  pollen,  which  he  deposited  on  the  stigma 
of  the  next  flower  he  visited,  f 

The  flower  thus  fertilized  acquired  a  strain  of 
fresh  vigor.  Its  seedlings  coming  now  into  com- 
petition with  the  existing  weaker  self-fertilized 
forms,  by  the  increased  vigor  won  in  the  struggle 
of  their  immediate  surroundings,  and  inheriting  the 
peculiarity  of  their  parents,  showed  flowers  possess- 
ing the  same  cross-fertilizing  device.  The  seeds 
from  these  again  scattering  continued  the  unequal 
struggle  in  a  larger  and  larger  field,  and  in  increasing 

*  It  is  this  tendency  to  variation  in  individual  flowers  tliat  makes 
it  possible  for  nature  to  select  and  preserve  traits  and  peculiarities 
which  are  of  value  to  the  plant. 

t  The  fulfilment  of  these  conditions  implies,  of  course,  flowers  in 
various  stages  of  development — some  with  ripe  anthers  and  imma- 
ture stigmas,  and  some  with  mature  stigmas  and  withered  anthers. 

14 


The  ^Discoveries  of  Four  Great  botanists 


numbers,  continually  crowding"  out  all  their  less 
vigorous  self-fertilized  competitors  of  the  same 
species,  at  length  to  become  entire  masters  of  the 
field  and  the  only  representatives  left  to  perpetuate 
the  line  of  descent. 

Everything  in  nature  is  in  a  state  of  change  or 
evolution,  and  we  can  find  flowers  of  all  degrees  in 
the  scale  of  cross-fertilization,  from  those  at  a  low 
stage  of  development,  adapted  to  insects  as  a  whole, 
but  not  to  any  special  class,  and  often  retaining,  as 
a  last  resort,  the  power  of  self-fertilization,  to  those 
which,  like  the  orchid,  can  be  fertilized  only  by  a 
single  species  of  insect,  and  actually  perish  if  it  fails 
to  visit  them. 

The  question  here  arises,  are  there  any  flowers 
that  are  invariably  self-fertilized  ?  There  are  a 
few. 

CLEISTOGAMOUS  BUDS 

A  good  example  of  such  a  flow^er  is  found  in  the 
violet,  which  produces  two  distinct  blossoms  on  the 
same  plant,  one  a  little  blind  or  '' cleistogamous " 
flower,  which  <^rows  close  to  the  fri'ound  and  which 
is  always  self-fertilized,  and  the  other  the  show}^ 
blossom,  with  which  we  are  all  familiar,  this  latter 
blossom  being  formed  for  cross-fertilization. 

The  blind  flower  is  rarely  seen,  as  it  is  a    tiny 

15 


'Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


pointed  affair,  which  never  even  peeps  beyond  its 
calyx.  Unpretentious  as  it  seems,  it  produces  a  pod 
that  is  literally  packed  with  seeds.  It  matures  in 
the  late  summer  and  autumn. 

These  seed  packets  are  among  the  finest  sharp- 
^^  shooters  of  the  autumn 

jt^'ln  a  ^  woods,  often  pinching 
out  their  pear-shaped 
seeds  a  distance  of  ten 
feet  upon  the  dried 
leaves. 

Cleistogamous  flow- 
ers are  an  economical 
provision,  as  they  pro- 
duce many  seeds  at 
small  cost  to  the  plant. 
They  doubtless  prove 
of    great    value,    too, 

THE   violet's   blind   FLOWER 

where  there  are  few 
insects  or  where  other  conditions  exist  unfavor- 
able to  frequent  cross-fertilization. 

The  ginseng,  the  polygala,  and  some  other  plants 
hide  their  cleistogamous  flowers  below  ground. 
The  fact  that  these  self-fertilized  flowers  are  always 
found  on  plants  bearing  also  cross-fertilized  blos- 
soms  goes  to   prove  that    Nature   never    leaves    a 


The  Discoveries  of  Four  Great  botanists 

flowering  plant  *  wholly  dependent  for  the  propaga- 
tion of  its  kind  upon  seeds  produced  by  the  self- 
fertilized  method,  providing,  if  need  be,  two  varying 


)  i^^ 


-%/(J^_,.>a^A,^_ 


t    m 


0      O 


ALTUMN  SHAKF-SHOOTER 


blossoms  on  the  same  plant  in  order  to  insure 
the  production  ot  some  seed  by  the  cross-fertilized 
process. 


*  These  terms,  flowering  and  non-flowering  plants,  used  throughout 
this  explanation  are  not  strictly  correct,  but  answer  all  practical 
purposes.  In  this  volume  we  are  dealing  exclusively  with  flowering 
plants  which  form  only  one  part  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Any 
explanation  regarding  seeds  or  snores  produced  by  asexual  union  in 
ferns,  mosses,  etc.,  would  lead  us  into  the  realm  of  non-flowering 
plants — another  great  division  of  the  plant  world. 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

Darwin  states  it  as  his  belief  that  none  of  the 
higher  forms  of  plant  life  (flowering  plants)  can 
fertilize  itself  for  a  number  of  successive  generations. 
It  must  be  crossed  with  another  individual  occa- 
sionally, preferably  one  on  a  different  plant,  and  the 
more  frequently  this  crossing  of  races  occurs  the 
better  it  is  for  the  plant. 


kr 


4 


V 


How    THE   Flowers 
Woo  THE  Insects 


Gold-barred  butterflies, 
tt)  and  fro, 

And  over  the  waterside 
'■'^^  wandered  and  wove. 

As  heedless  and  idle  as 
clouds  that  rove 

And  drift  by  the  peaks 
of  perpetual  snow." 

Idle    indeed !       Observe 

the  insect  more  carefully,  my 

poet  !     We   have    cherished 

the  thought  of  the  ''  idle  but- 

tertly,"  the  type  of  charming 

heedlessness,  too  long.      He 

is  no  idler,  but  a  hard  worker 

I'   '    u  and  an  earnest  student,  who 

could  tell   the  wisest  of  us, 

if  he  would  speak,  more  true  science  than  we  have 

ever  dreamed  of. 

It  was  the  constant  presence  of  these  "idlers"  at 
the  blossoms'  throats  that  led  Surengel  and  Darwin 

19 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

to  that  close  study  of  the  flowers  which  resulted  in 
our  present  knowledge  of  the  method  by  which 
they  perpetuate  themselves.  This  is  a  wonderful 
scientific  truth  ;  but  the  butterfly  whispers  that 
there  is  more  to  learn,  that  there  always  will  be 
more  to  learn. 

The  flower  of  to-day !  What  an  inspiration  to 
our  reverential  study !  What  a  new  revelation  is 
borne  upon  its  perfume  !  Its  forms  and  hues,  what 
invitations  to  our  devotion  !  This  spot  upon  the 
petal ;  this  peculiar  quality  of  perfume  or  odor ; 
this  fringe  within  the  throat  f  this  stamen  and  pistil, 
so  close  that  they  almost  touch,  and  yet  so  widely 
separated  !  What  a  catechism  to  one  who  knows 
that  each  and  all  represent  an  affinity  to  some  insect 
— a  long-tongued  night  moth,  perhaps,  with  whose 
life  its  own  is  mysteriously  linked  through  the 
sweet  bond  of  perfume  and  nectar  and  the  sole 
hope  of  posterity. 

Having  found,  as  it  were,  our  marvellous  cross- 
fertilized  flowers,  let  us  enter  any  woodland  path 
and,  plucking  a  few  blossoms,  examine  them  more 
closely,  for  we  have  by  no  means  fathomed  all  the 
mysteries  of  their  adaptation  to  insects,  or  even 
guessed  to  what  extent    it  may  be  carried,  or  the 

*  The  fringe  protects  the  nectar  from  rain. 

20 


How  the  Flowers  IVoo  the  Insects 


reasons  that  underlie  the  varying  structure  of  the 
different  organs. 

XECTARY  RIDDLES 

Here,  for  instance,  are  two  flowers — one  with  a 
lono-    and    narrow    ncctarv,   and   the    cHhcr    with    a 


A    WOOltLAXl)    PATH 


broad  and  shallow  one.  The  coloring,  too,  differs 
greatly.  What  is  the  explanation  of  these  vari- 
ations ?  Simply  that  at  some  point  in  their  life 
historv  each  of  these  dowers  made  a  compact  with 
a  different  tribe  of  insects,  to  which  it  has  ever  since 
been  adapting  itself. 


"Blossom  Hosts  jiid  Insect  Guests 

At  the  time  they  were  both,  probably,  at  a  low 
stage  of  development,  visited  by  many  insects,  but 
adapted  to  no  special  class.  They  doubtless  enter- 
tained vagrants  such  as  we  see  to-day  wandering 
from  flower  to  flower, 

"  Kissing  all  buds  that  are  pretty  and  sweet." 

This  proved  a  poor  method  for  both  flowers  and 
insects.  The  insects  miorht  visit  blossom  after 
blossom,  only  to  find  that  the  nectaries  had  been 
drained  by  previous  guests ;  and  the  flowers, 
since  they  had  no  special  attraction  to  offer  over 
any  other  flowers,  constantly  ran  the  risk  of  being 
passed  by  and  left  to  wither,  their  mission  in  life 
unfulfilled  or  accomplished  only  by  the  unsatis- 
factory process  of  self-fertilization. 

So  it  came  about  that  one  dav  the  flower  that  we 
now  see  with  the  long  nectary  made  a  compact 
with  Mistress  Butterfly.  It  agreed  to  hide  its 
nectar  in  a  deep,  narrow^  pocket  where  Master 
Bombus  could  not  possibly  thrust  his  great  head. 
The  flower  which  has  the  shallow  nectary,  on  the 
other  hand,  came  to  an  agreement  with  Master 
Bombus  to  broaden  its  nectar  pocket  for  his  special 
benefit. 

How  is  the  flower  designed  for  Master  Bombus 
protected  from  the  raids  of  Mistress  Butterfly,  say 


How  the  Flowers  Woo  the  Insects 

you  ?  Possibly  its  blue  ^^  dress,  which  so  charms  the 
busy  bee,  is  distasteful  to  her,  or  its  honey  not  sea- 
soned to  her  dainty  palate. 

It  is  not  always  necessary  for  a  flower  to  protect 
its  sweets.  It  is  enough  that  it  should  be  attractive 
to  the  insect  it  favors.  Each  class  of  insects  having 
special  races  of  flowers  catering  to  its  needs  speedily 
learns  where  it  is  most  welcome  and  most  certain 
of  entertainment. 

Nearly  all  llowers,  however,  protect  themselves 
from  creeping  pilferers.  Common  methods  of  do- 
ing this  are  by  exuding  a  sticky  substance  along 
their  stems,  or  covering  them  with  a  fuzzy  growth. 
The  closed  gentian  keeps  its  petals  always  folded 
for  this  reason. 

In  return  for  the  attractions  or  protection  offered 
by  their  special  friends,  the  Butterfly  and  the  Bee 
aorreed  to  be  faithful  to  their  affinities  and  work 
diligently  for  them  in  the  transfer  of  their  pollen. f 

FLOWERS  AXD  JXSECTS  SUBJECT  TO    THE  SAME  LAW 

Years  or  decades  do  not  count  in  the  process  of 


*  Lubbock's  careful  experiments  would  seem  to  prove  that  bees 
prefer  blue  flowers,  moths  white,  butterflies  various  shades  of  red, 
and  beetles  and  small  flies  white  and  yellow.  White  and  pale  yellow, 
being  more  conspicuous  in  the  dark  than  any  other  color,  have  been 
almost  universally  adopted  by  night-blooming  flowers. 

f  Another  reason  which  tends  to  make  an  insect  remain  true  to  a 
certain  species  while  in  bloom  is  the  fact  that  it  can  work  much  more 
rapidly  by  so  doing,  as  it  knows  the  method  of  approach  thoroughly 

23 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

evolution.  It  has  probably  taken  centuries  for  each 
of  these  nectaries  to  become  perfectly  suited  to 
the  particular  insect  for  which  it  was  designed,  but 
through  natural  selection,  each  century  has  added 
something  to  the  depth  of  the  one  nectary  and  the 
breadth  of  the  other. 

It  is  through  this  law,  as  you  remember,  that 
the  cross-fertilized  flowers  displace  the  self-fertiHzed 
ones,  and  in  the  same  way  the  flowers  that  most 
readily  adapt  themselves  to  their  insect  friends  sur- 
vive and  push  aside  their  less  well-developed  fellows. 

The  insect,  too,  so  soon  as  the  flower  begins  to 
adapt  itself  especially  to  him,  must  in  turn  adapt 
himself  to  it.  If  Mistress  Butterfly's  tongue  is  too 
short  to  reach  to  the  bottom  of  the  flower's  nectary, 
or  if  Master  Bombus's  head  does  not  fit  the  pocket 
prepared  for  him,  they  both  fail  to  obtain  their  food, 
and  may  possibly  die  of  starvation."^ 

It  is  often  said  that  the  laws  of  Flora's  kingdom, 


and  the  flowers  are  apt  to  be  close  together.  The  industry  of  these 
little  creatures  is  amazing.  Bees  have  been  known  to  visit  twenty 
flowers  a  minute,  and  individual  blossoms  are  frequently  visited  as 
many  as  thirty  times  a  day.  Nectar  is  generally  secreted  by  a 
flower  until  pollination  is  etfected,  or,  until  the  hope  of  this  end 
being  abandoned,  the  flower  withers.  This  gives  a  blossom  many 
more  opportunities  for  cross-fertilization  than  if  its  nectar  was 
exhausted  by  one  visitor. 

*This  is  true  only  in  a  limited  degree.  It  is  a  great  advantage  to 
the  insect  to  adapt  himself  to  the  flowers  he  feeds  on,  but  he  is  not 
so  absolutely  dependent  upon  an  individual  species  of  flower  as  the 
species  often  is  upon  him. 

24 


:>k  k  .ia  i^^iilUut  tilSiiARW 


How  the  Flowers  M^oo  the  Insects 

which  thus  crush  the  weak  and  protect  the  strong, 
are  more  just  than  merciful.  It  is  true  that  any 
breach  of  contract  between  flower  and  insect,  espe- 
cially if  it  is  persisted  in,  is  frequently  punished  with 
death  to  the  offending  one ;  but  this  is  the  extreme 
penalty,  which  is  often  modified,  as  we  shall  learn. 

STAMEX  AXn   riS'l'JL   LESSONS 

The  stamens  as  well  as  the  nectary  have  a  lesson 
to  teach.  The  function  of  the  stamens,  as  you  know, 
is  the  secretion  of  pollen.     This  function,  however, 


STAMENS 


has  no  reference  whatever  to  the  external  form  of 
the  stamen.  Why,  then,  do  we  find  such  remark- 
able divergence  as  is  here  pictured  ?  Another  in- 
stance of  adaptation  to  an  insect  ?  Yes.  But  the 
reason  for  this  adaptation  is  somewhat  different  from 
that  which  caused  the  nectaries  to  vary. 

The  stamens  differ  in  order  to  insure  the  transfer 
of  their  pollen.  The  variety  of  methods  employed 
by  flowers  in  loading  their  insect  messengers  with 
pollen    is    beyond    belief.      Each    method    requires 

25 


blossom  Hosts  j/iJ  Insect  Guests 


different  stamen  machinery,  hence  their  varying 
structure. 

Where  moths  and  butterflies  are  the  flowers'  spon- 
sors, the  stamens  are  generally  so  arranged  that  the 
pollen  can  be  deposited  on  the  visitor's  eyes  or 
tonpfue :  where  a  bee  is  the  allv,  the  stamens  are 
apt  to  be  placed  so  as  to  come  in  contact  with 
his  back,  head,  sides,  legs,  or  thorax. 

The  methods  are  infinite  in  number  ;   there   are 


VARYING   FLOWER   ORGANS 
26 


Hou:  the  Flowers  Woo  the  Insects 

exploding  flowers,  flower  traps,  stamen  embraces, 
pollen  showers,  pollen  })lasters,  and  pollen  necklaces. 
Darwin  discovered  tliat  the  pollen  of  Orchis  iiiorio, 
whose  apparent  lack  of  nectar  so  puzzled  Spren- 
gel,  must  be  actually  glued  to  the  insect  in  order  to 
insure  its  safety.  The  flower,  therefore,  requires 
the  insect  to  bore  through  an  outer  skin  to  reach 
his  food.  While  he  is  thus  employed,  the  pollen  is 
securely  fastened  to  him. 

Pistils  are  no  exception  to  the  rule  ;  they,  as  well 
as  every  other  organ,  must  be  modified  to  suit  the 
flower's  affinity.  They  must  be  formed  so  as  to 
secure  and  retain  the  pollen  gifts  brought  to  their 
stigmas.  The  variations  are  not  so  great  as  among 
the  stamens,  but,  nevertheless,  there  is  wonderful 
diversity. 

The  flower  is  even  placed  on  its  stalk  in  a  posi- 
tion convenient  for  the  insect's  entrance. 

With  Darwin  as  our  guide,  then,  and  the  insect 
as  our  key — an  open  sesame — the  hidden  treasure 
is  revealed.  It  is  now  quite  possible,  as  Darwin 
demonstrated,  to  look  upon  a  flower  for  the  first 
lime  and  from  its  structure  foretell  the  method  of 
its  intended  cross-fertilization — nay,  more,  possibly 
the  kind  or  even  the  species  of  insect  to  which  this 
cross-fertilization  is  entrusted. 

27 


"Blossom  Hosts  j/id  Insect  Guests 

THE  GREAT  AXGR.ECUM 

A  remarkable  instance  of  the  adaptation  of  a 
flower  to  a  single  species  of  insect  is  seen  in  the  great 
Angriucum  orchid  of  Madagascar,  described  by  Dar- 
win. This  species  glorifies  Darwin's  faith  in  the 
truth  of  nis  theory,  and  marks  a  notable  victory  in 
the  long  battle  for  its  supremacy. 

Among  the  host  of  sceptics  who  met  his  evolu- 
tionary and  revolutionary  theory  ^vith  incredulity, 
not  to  say  ridicule  or  worse,  was  one  who  thus  chal- 
lenged him  shortly  after  the  appearance  of  his  "  Fer- 
tilization of  Orchids,"  addressing  him  from  Mada- 
gascar substantially  as  follows:  "  Upon  your  theory 
of  evolution  through  natural  selection  all  the  various 
contrasting  structural  features  of  the  orchids  have 
direct  reference  to  some  insect  which  shall  best 
cross-fertilize  them.  If  an  orchid  has  a  nectary  one 
inch  long,  an  insect's  tongue  of  equiv^alent  length  is 
implied  ;  a  nectary  six  inches  in  length  likewise  im- 
plies a  tongue  six  inches  long.  What  have  you  to 
say  in  regard  to  an  orchid  which  flourishes  here  in 
Madagascar  possessing  a  long  nectary  as  slender  as 
a  knittinor-needle  and  eleven  inches  in  lensfth  ?  On 
your  hypothesis  there  must  be  a  moth  with  a  tongue 
eleven  inches  long,  or  this  nectary  would  never  have 
been  elal)orated." 

28 


How  the  Flowers  Woo  the  Insects 


Darwin's  reply  was  magnificent  in  its  proof  of  the 
sul)lime  conviction  of  the  truth  of  his  beHef  :  "The 
existence  of  an  orchid  with  a  slender  nectary  eleven 
inches  in  length,  and  with  nectar  secreted  at  its  tip, 
is  a  conclusive  demonstration  of  the  existence  of  a 
moth  with  a  tonoue  eleven  inches  in  length,  even 
thoiio-Ji  no  such  moth  is  knoiun.'' 

Some  of  us  rememl)er  the  ridicule  which  was 
heaped  upon  him  for  this  apparently  blind  adherence 
to  an  untenable  theory.  But  victory  complete  and 
demoralizing  to  his  opponents  awaited  this  oracular 
utterance  when  later  a  disciple  of  Darwin,  led  by 
the  same  spirit  of  faith  and  conviction,  visited  Mada- 
gascar, and  was  soon  able  to  affirm  that  he  had  caught 
the  moth,  a  huge  sphinx-moth,  and  that  its  tongue 
measured  eleven  inches  in  length. 

Here  we  see  the  prophecy  of  the  existence  of  an 
unknown  moth,  founded  on  the  form  of  a  blossom. 
At  that  time  the  moth  had  not  been  actually  seen 
at  work  on  the  orchid,  but  who  shall  question  for  a 
moment  that  had  the  flower  been  visited  in  its  twi- 
light or  moonlight  haunt  the  murmur  of  humming 
wings  about  the  blossom's  throat  would  have  at- 
tested the  presence  of  the  flower's  afftnity  ;  for  with- 
out the  kiss  of  this  identical  moth  the  Angraecum 
must  become  extinct.     No  other  moth  can  fulfil  the 

29 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

conditions  necessary  to  its  perpetuation.  The  floral 
adaptation  is  such  that  the  moth  must  force  its  large 
head  far  into  the  opening  of  the  blossom  ni  order 
to  reach  the  sweets  in  the  long  nectary.  In  so  doing 
the  pollen  becomes  attached  to  the  base  of  the 
tongue,  and  is  withdrawn  as  the  insect  leaves  the 
flower,  and  is  thrust  against  the  stigma  in  the  next 
blossom  visited.  This  was  clearly  demonstrated  by 
Darwin  in  specimens  sent  to  him,  by  means  of  a 
probe  of  the  presumable  length  and  diameter  of  the 
moth's  tongue.  Shorter-tongued  moths  would  fail  to 
remove  the  pollen,  and  also  to  reach  the  nectar,  and 
would  thus  soon  cease  to  visit  the  blossom. 

HOW  X AT  URAL  SELECTION  PERFECTS   THE  AXGRJECUM 

The  Angraecum  also  affords  in  this  long  pendent 
nectary  a  most  lucid  illustration  of  the  present  work- 
ings of  natural  selection.  The  normal  length  of 
that  nectary  should  be  about  eleven  inches,  but,  in 
fact,  this  length  varies  considerably  in  the  flowers 
of  different  plants. 

Let  us  suppose  a  flower  whose  nectary  chances 
to  be  only  six  inches  in  length.  The  moth  visits 
this  flower,  but  the  tip  of  its  tongue  reaches  the  nectar 
long  before  it  can  bring  its  head  into  the  opening 
of  the  tube.  This  being  a  vital  condition,  the  moth 
fails  to  withdraw  the  pollen  ;  and  inasmuch  as  the 

30 


How  the  Flowers  H^oo  the  Insects 


pollen  is  usually  deposited  close  .. 

to    the  head   of   the    moth,    this  ^  ^  "| 

flower  would    receive    no  pollen     ^        '    '^  ', 
upon  its  stigma.     This  particular       ^^ 
blossom  would  thus  be  both  bar- 
ren   and    sterile.       None    of    its 
pollen  would  be  carried  to  other 
stigmas,  nor  would  it  set  a  seed         '^^'^^"^ 
to  perpetuate  by  inherit-  /^ 

ance  its  shorter  nectary. 
Again,  let  us  sui)pose       /^ 

s     ,'7 


A— -^ 


t 


f  ^fe^;  .  _  ^  the  variation  of  an  extra  long  nectary  ; 
and  the  writer  recently  saw  a  number 
of  these  orchids  with  nectaries  thirteen 
inches  in  length.     The  moth  comes,  and 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


now  must  needs  insert  its  head  to  the  utmost  into 
the  opening  of  the  flower.  This  would  insure  its 
fertiHzation  by  the  pollen  on  the  insect's  tongue  ; 
and  even  though  the  sipper  failed  to  reach  the 
nectar,  the  pollen  would  be  withdrawn  upon  the 
tongue,  to  be  carried  to  other  flowers,  which  might 
thus  be  expected  to  inherit  from  the  paternal  side 
the  tendency  to  the  longer  nectary.  The  tendency 
toward  the  perpetuation  of  the  short  nectary  is 
therefore  stopped,  while  that  of  the  longer  nectary 
is  insured. 

The  Angrsecum  is  only  one  of  a  family  of  plants 
numbering  some  thousands  of  known  species,  and 
yet  nearly  all  of  them  would  be  doomed  to  extinc- 
tion were  it  not  for  their  legion  of  insect,  butterfly 
and  humming-bird  friends  and  companions. 

NA  TURE'S  TOLERANCE 

Because  of  the  law  of  the  "  survival  of  the  fittest," 
Dame  Nature  has  gained  the  reputation  of  being 
cruel ;  but  when  you  have  studied  her  ways  closely, 
you  will  find  that  she  is  really  very  tolerant.  She 
does  not  approve  of  close  or  self-fertilization,  yet 
often  permits  plants  to  retain  this  power  as  a  last 
resort,  as  in  the  case  of  the  dandelion.  If  insects 
fail  to  fertilize  this  blossom,  it  gradually  separates 
and  curls  back  on  its  stem,  thus  bringing  the  inside 

32 


How  the  Flowers  IVoo  the  Insects 


— stigmatic — surface  in  contact  with  the  outside — 
pollen-bcarino- — surface.  Fertilized  in  this  way,  it 
is  possible  for  the  iiower  to  produce  seed  without 
the  aid  of  insects. 

Progress  is  Nature's  law.  So  long  as  the  flowers 
are  improving,  Nature  will  tolerate  them.  She 
gives  them  many  opportunities  to  prove  their  fit- 
ness to  live  by  showing  that  they  are  of  use  in  this 
busy  world,  where  there  is  so  much  to  be  done. 
But  woe  to  the  flower  or  insect  that,  in  spite  of  all 
the  aids  that  Nature  may  extend,  continues  to  degen- 
erate. Death  will  surely  be  the  penalty  eventually 
meted  out  lo  it. 

In  the  case  of  the  Angra'cum  and  its  companion 
moth,  we  cannot  doubt  that  tolerance  is  shown. 
Of  course,  in  the  extreme  example  cited,  where 
the  blossom  is  so  defective  as  to  lack  five  inches  of 
the  normal  length,  its  chances  of  setting  seed  are 
very  few  ;  but  even  in  this  case,  conditions  may  pos- 
sibly arise  which  will  enable  it  to  mature  its  fruit. 

Where  a  blossom  falls  onl}^  a  little  short  of  the 
requirements,  it  is  i)ermitted  many  opportunities  for 
fertilization.  For  instance,  the  moth,  whose  tongue 
is  too  short  to  sip  the  honey  of  the  flower  with  the 
thirteen-inch  nectary,  may,  after  receiving  its  pollen, 
pass  on,  in  his  search  for  food,  to  a  blossom  with  a 

33 


'Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


ten-inch  nectary,  and  there  gratify  his  appetite,  and 
at  the  same  time  assist  the  defective  flower  in  accom- 
phshing  its  mission  in  Hfe.  This  particular  blossom, 
having  now  been  crossed  with  a  flower  whose  nec- 
tary was  unusually  long,  its  seed  vv^ill  probably  pro- 
duce blossoms  of  the  average  length. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  workings  of  natural  selec- 
tion is  too  limited  for  us  to  lay  down  hard  and  fast 
rules  regarding  it.  All  that  we  can  say  is  that  the 
tendencies  are  in  certain  directions.  Natural  selec- 
tion works  only  on  the  broadest  lines  and  over 
long  periods  of  time. 

NA  T  URE'S  FR  UGALIT  Y 

It  is  quite  possible  that  in  many  of  the  variations 
we  note,  we  see  the  beginning  of  a  new  species. 
To  put  it  concretel}^  if  the  Angraecum  produced 
many  blossoms  with  six-inch  nectaries,  they  might 
serve  to  feed  some  species  of  moth  with  a  tongue  of 
that  length,  which,  in  return,  would  transfer  their 
pollen.  Should  this  be  true,  Nature,  in  all  proba- 
bility, would  begin  to  adapt  them  to  each  other.  It 
would  be  wasteful  to  destroy,  or  rather  eliminate, 
any  plant  life  that  was  worthy  to  exist  ;  and  Nature 
is  always  frugal. 

In  all  this  complicated  flower  machinery,  we  find 
nothing  unnecessary,      If  fragrance   is   a  sufficient 

34 


How  the  Flowers  PVoo  the  Insects 

attraction  to  insure  its  perpetuation,  the  construc- 
tion of  the  flower  is  most  simple  ;  if  color  is  suffi- 
cient, all  effort  at  adaptation  ceases  there.  If  a 
goodly  store  of  pollen  suffices  to  attract  the  insect 
sought  and  nectar  is  not  required,  all  the  efforts  of 
the  flower  are  expended  on  the  manufacture  of 
pollen,  and  no  nectar  is  secreted.  When  the  end 
in  view  is  insured.  Nature's  work  is  finished  in  that 
particular  direction.  It  is  therefore  quite  usual  to 
find  plain,  unattractive  flowers  that  are  more  com- 
plicated in  their  internal  mechanism  than  the  beau- 
tiful rose  or  flaming  peony. 

The  orchids,  that  rare  race,  need  every  attraction 
and  the  most  tender  care  that  Nature  can  bestow 
to  insure  their  continued  existence,  and  are  there- 
fore among  our  most  exquisitely  fashioned,  as  well 
as  most  wonderfully  beautiful  flowers. 

Look  where  we  will  among  the  blossoms,  we  find 
the  same  beautiful  plan  of  intercommunion  and 
reciprocitv  evervwhere  demonstrated.  The  means 
appear  without  limit  in  their  evolved — rather  I 
should  say,  involved  ingenuity. 

While  each  family  of  plants  is  apt  to  favor  some 
particular  general  plan  in  their  adaptation  to  insects, 
the  modifications  in  the  various  species  seem  almost 
without  limit.      Pluck  the  first  flower  that  you  meet 

35 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


in  your  stroll  to-morrow  and  it  will    tell  you  a  new 
story— in  some  cases  a  beautiful  story  of   perfect 
adaptation,*  in  others  an  unfinished  story,   but  in 
very  instance  an  interesting  story. 


*  Perfection  of  e\"ery  part  is  never  attained  in  the  vegetable  any 
more  than  in  the  animal  kingdom.  There  is  always  room  for  im- 
provement in  some  way. 


3^ 


4 


^! 


*o 


(i' 


On 


»^^ 

^;^ 

^-' 

-y^-^-r. 

M\'" 

The  Barberry's  Welcome  to 
Master  Bom  bus 

A   CLUSTER  of  barberry   blossoms, 
probably  the  best  known  species  of 
^"^  the  Barberry  family,  hide  within  their 

yellow  cups  a  secret  well  worth  learnino;. 

Poets  of  all  ages  have  loved  to  dwell  upon  the 
llowers — their  "  swete  smels,"  exquisite  forms,  fra- 
grance, and  colors.  The  droning  bees  in  an  en- 
vironment of  fragrant  bloom  have  moved  many  a 
poetic  pen  to  inspiration.  But  it  is  not  often  that 
the  bards  have  seen  deep  enough  into  the  floral  mys- 
teries to  immortalize  the  doings  of  the  blossoms. 

I  recall  one  such  allusion,  however,  with  refer- 
ence to  this  mischievous  blossom  of  the  barberry. 
How  well  Hosea  Biglow  knew  its  pranks  ! 

"  All  down  the  loose-walled  lanes  in  archin'  bowers 
The  barb'ry  droops  its  strings  o'  golden  flowers, 
"Whose  shrinkin'  hearts  the  school-gals  love  to  try 
With  pins.     They'll  worry  yourn  so,  boys,  bime-by." 

.     37 


"Blossom  Hosts  cind  Insect  Guests 


Those  "  shrinkin'  hearts"  of  the  barberry  blos- 
som, so  lonof  the  wonder  and  amusement  of 
children,  including  many  children  of  adult  growth, 
have,  so  far  as  I  know,  herein  found  their  first  and 
only  historian — historian,  but  not  interpreter  ;  for 
neither  Hosea  Biglow  nor  his  literary  parent,  James 
Russell  Lowell,  ever  dreamed  of  the  significance  of 
this  strange  spectacle  in  the  "  shrinkin'  hearts"  of 
the  barberry  bloom  when  surprised  with  a  point  of  a 
pin. 

But  the  bee  can  tell  us  all  about  it.  He  has 
known  this  singular  trick  in  the  barberry  for  ages, 
and  kept  the  secret  all  to  himself.  It  is  his  visits 
in  May  and  June  to  the  "shrinkin'  hearts"  of  the 
golden  flowers  that  produce  the  clusters  of  brilliant 
scarlet  acid  berries  of  September,  as  we  shall  pres- 
ently see. 

At  Fig.  I  I  have  shown  a  plan  of  the  barberry 
blossom  seen  from  below,  its  yellow  sepals  and 
petals  open,  and  opposite  each  of  the  inner  set,  and 
pressed  against  it,  a  stamen.  This  stamen  is  shown 
below  in  three  stages — closed,  partly  open,  and 
fully  open — the  queer  little  ear-shaped  lids  finally 
drawn  up,  showing  the  pollen-pockets,  and  also 
withdrawing  a  portion  of  the  pollen  from  the 
cavity.     At  the  center  is  seen  the   circular  tip  of 

3S 


^ 


Jn  archin^  bawc 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


the  ovary,  which  iinally  becomes  the  berry — that  is, 
when  the  Httle  scheme  here  planned  has  been  ful- 
tilled.  This  circular  form  represents  the  tip  of 
the  ovary,  and  the  little  toothed  rim  the  sfignia. 
Now,  what  is  the  intention  here  expressed  ?  This 
construction  represents  a  plan,  first,  to  invite  a  bee. 
This  is  done,  as  in  all  flowers  visited  by  insects,  by 
its  color,  its  fragrance,  and  its  nectar,  which  is 
secreted  in  a  gland  at  the  base  of  each  petal,  near 
the  centre  of  the  flower  ;  secondly,    to   make  that 


40 


The  "Bjrbcrrv^s  H^elcome  to  master  "Bomhus 


bee  bear  away  the  pollen  ;  thirdly,  to  cause  that 
same  bee  to  place  this  pollen  on  the  stigma  rim  of 
the  next  flower  he  visits.  In  Fig.  2  we  see  how 
beautifully  this  plan  is  carried  out  by  the  insect. 
At  A  we  see  the  same  flower  cut  open  sideways, 
the  waiting,  expectant  stamens  tucked  away  at  the 
sides,  leaving  a  free  opening  to  the  base  of  the 
flower.  Now  comes  our  bee.  He  must  needs 
hang  back  downward  to  sip  at  the  drooping  flower. 
As  his  tongue  enters,  and  finally  touches  the   base 

41 


IBlossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

of  these  stamens,  clap/  they  come  one  after 
another  against  his  tongue  and  face,  and  there 
deposit  their  load  of  pollen  (B).  The  bee,  who  has 
doubtless  got  over  his  surprise  at  this  demonstra- 
tion— if,  indeed,  he  ever  had  any — now  iiies  to 
another  blossom,  perhaps  on  the  same  cluster  (C). 
Entering  it  as  before,  the  notched  edge  of  the  stig- 
matic  rim  comes  in  contact  with  the  pollen  on  his 
tongue  and  face,  and  the  flower  is  thus  fertilized  by 
pollen  from  another  barberry  blossom,  the  inten- 
tion of  the  flower  now  perfectly  realized  in  cross- 
fertilization. 


1^ 


42 


The     Honeyed    Clover — The 
"  Bk(;(;ar's  Tick  " 

The  red  clover  owes  its  exist- 
ence to  the  ''epicurean  of  June," 
if  I  may  so  speak  of  the  bumble- 
bee. This  fastidious  plant,  it  is 
well  known,  would  become  ex- 
tinct, perish  in  celibacy,  without 
the  sanction  of  this  busy  little 
marriage-priest. 
Like  many  other  members  of  the  Pulse  fam- 
ily, it  has  what  would  seem  to  us  a  rude  welcome 
for  its  guests.  A  shot-gun  lies  in  wait  for  them 
loaded  to  the  muzzle  with  pollen  powder,  and  with 
the  trigger  carefully  set,  so  that  they  cannot  fail  to 
press  it  while  searching  for  sweets. 

In  an  endeavor  to  establish  a  clover  crop  in 
Australia,  it  was  discovered  that  while  the  first 
sowed  growth  from  imported  seed  thrived  luxuri- 
antly, it  ripened  no  seed,  and  thus  defeated  its  self- 
perpetuance ;    and    all    because    Bombus    was    not 

43 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


consulted.  The  importation  of  a  few  shiploads  of 
bumblebees,  howev^er,  insured  an  abundant  crop. 
Thus,  when  this  "breezy  hum"  of  the  Bombus  is 
heard  no  more  in  our  meadows,  we  must  say  good- 
by  to  the  red  clover. 

And  now,  apropos  of  such  an  extremity,  I  am 
reminded  of  that  remark  of  Darwin,  who  traces 
back  a  little  farther  to  the  source  of  our  obligation. 
Clover,  he  reasons,  depends  upon  the  number  of 
cats.  No  cats,  no  clover.  Clover  will  not  produce 
seed  unless  its  flowers  are  fertilized  by  bumble- 
bees ;  the  nests  of  the  bees  are  eagerly  destroyed 
by  mice  ;  cats  kill  the  mice — thus  the  bees  are 
spared,  and  having  these,  the  clover  is  insured. 
Very  good  !  "Cats  and  clover  "  as  a  context  may 
be  more  alliterative,  but  most  of  us. who  are  at  all 
given  to  sentiment  will  welcome  the  interposing 
links  in  the  chain  of  cause  and  effect. 

By  what  endless  devices  does  Nature  thus  secure 
her  ends  !  The  design  beneath  the  construction  of 
a?iy  flower  we  may  pluck — often  the  very  com- 
monest by  the  roadside — is  a  profound  riddle,  often 
unanswerable  until  we  await  the  oracle  of  its  chosen 
mouthpiece,  perhaps  the  one  confidant  for  whom 
it  has  been  adapting  and  shaping  itself  through  the 
ages. 

44. 


7 he  "Beggar's  Tick 


/- 


.-7iV  JNTEREST/.XG 
VAGABOND 

Here  is  another 

familiar  face.     We 

all  know  him — 

the  tramp  of  the 

unci  erwoods; 

for  who,  in  spite 

of  himself,    has 

not    brought 

home  the  *'  bee^- 

gar's    ticks"? 

Di  sviodut7n     accumi- 

jiahus  the   records 

^^  h  a  V  e      him      down. 

Look  out  for  him  in 

the    rogue's    gallery. 

See   him  now  !    with 

clustered   leaves   and 

\^r       saucv  chains  of  seed-pods  and 

aii\     tii)s     of    pink    pea-blos- 


somcd  Howcis ! 

So,  so,  my  impetuous  vaga- 
'^V  bond,    vou    have    a    slap    for 
"^n^   /  ^^  ^11  foi  tin\  bee  and  fly  as 
^/      well    as    me,       you    secure 
■^^^^  }oui   posteiity  by  the  same 


45 


/tj?v 


\^ 


blossom  Hosts  ciiid  Insect  Guests 

aggressive  arts  with  which  you  perpetuate  their 
vagrancy.  A  little  fly  alights  upon  the  small  pink 
blossom,  when,  lo  !  the  flower  explodes,  the  insect  is 
greeted  with  a  slap  on  the  face  or  breast,  and  a  dab 
of  dust  in  his  eyes.  For  this  flower,  too,  is  a  veri- 
table trap,  delicately  set.  Upon  the  slightest  touch, 
the  loaded  spring — consisting  of  the  rigid  column  of 
filaments  enclosing  the  young  pod — is  released  from 
the  overlapping  petals,  and  the  anthers  hurl  their 
shower  of  pollen  upon  the  body  of  the  intruder. 
But  observe  the  wise  adjustment  beneath  all  this 
mechanism.  The  stio^ma — the  oro^an  throuofh  which 
the  seeds  are  fertilized — projects  a  little  beyond  the 
anthers,  and  is  the  first  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
insect,  and  thus  gets  a  supply  of  pollen  from  the 
previously  visited  flower. 

It  is  the  pollen-collecting  bees  which  the  Beg- 
gar's Tick  wishes  to  attract.  The  plant,  therefore, 
has  directed  its  energies,  through  the  ages,  to  in- 
creasing its  store  of  golden  powder  rather  than  to 
laying  up  sweets,  its  food  being  intended  for 
unborn  generations,  not  for  the  insect  that  does  its 
bidding. 

In  the  lucerne.  Medic  ago  sativa,  the  flowers  are 
similarly  explosive,  and  it  has  been  observed  that 
bees  find  this  continual  belaboring  unpleasant,  and 

46 


The  'Beggar's  Tick 


contrive  means  of   obtaining  their  nectar  without 
touching  the  trigger — a    skilful    operation,    it    ^ 
would  seem,  when  we  consider  that  the  touch  <M^ 
of  a  butterfly's  tongue   is  commonly  sufficient.  ,'- 
to  explode  the  flower.  -  -  '.  %>*- 

The  woad-waxen,  Genista  tincloria,  the    "  ,         Q-^x 
identical    ''whin"   of    the    English     ,.  ^,^  •   v.       ^ 'V 
downs,    now  sparingly   naturalized  . 


STICK-SFEn   PLANTS   OF 
THE   AUTUMN    WOODS 


K\ 


in  some  sections  of  New  England, 

/^■^  affords,    i)erhaps,    in    the    large    size   of    its 

/       flowers  and  rigid  tension,   the  best  illustra- 

^        tion  of  this  peculiar  explosive  mechanism  to 

be   found   among  our  flora,   and,  like  the  various 

47 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


desmodiums,  is  well  worth  a  little  study  in  its  haunts. 
The  two  forms  of  the  flower,  both  before  and  after 
^vplosion,  are  easily  observed  upon  almost  any 
single  plant. 


J-, 


^^^^ 


*t  t . 


"^^4fer 


*  %! 


48 


^'W  -s 


1 


The   Evening   Primrose 

AND    THE    ' 

Hovering  Moth 


■># 


■■j^r\ 


The  summer  which  is  al- 
lowed to  pass  without  a  visit  to  the 
"  """^  twilight  haunt  of  the  evening  prim- 
rose,  perhaps   at  your  very  door,    is   an 
|^\|-.  opportunity  missed. 

^  Night  after  night  for  weeks  this  beau- 
tiful member  of  the  Primrose  family  breathes  its 
fragrant  invitation  as  its  luminous  blooms  flash  out 
one  by  one  from  the  clusters  of  buds  in  the  gloom, 

49 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

as  though  in  eager  response  to  the  touch  of  some 
wandering  sprite,  until  the  darkness  is  Ht  up  with 
their  luminous  galaxy — that  beautiful  episode  of 
blossom  consciousness  and  hope  so  picturesquely 
described  by  Keats. 

"  A  tuft  of  evening  primroses 
O'er  which  the  Avind  may  hover  till  it  dozes, 
O'er  which  it  well  might  take  a  pleasant  sleep, 
But  that  'tis  ever  startled  by  the  leap 
Of  buds  into  ripe  flowers." 

Nor  is  it  necessary  to  brave  the  night  air  to  wit- 
ness this  sudden  transformation.  A  cluster  of  the 
flowers  placed  in  a  vase  beneath  an  evening  lamp 
will  reveal  the  episode,  though  robbed  of  the  poetic 
attribute  of  their  natural  sombre  environment  and 
the  murmuring  response  of  the  twilight  moth,  a  com- 
panion to  which  its  form,  its  color,  and  its  breath 
of  perfume  and  impulsive  greeting  are  but  the  ex- 
pression of  a  beautiful  divine  affinity. 

The  primrose  presents  the  peculiar  phenomena  of 
two  kinds  of  buds,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying 
drawing. 

Regarding  these  varying  buds,  I  once  received  the 
following  letter  : 

"  I  read  in  '  Harper's  Young  People '  your  piece 
about  the  evening  primrose,  and  found  the  little 
moth  and  the  catterpilers,  what  I  never  seen  before ; 

50 


The  Evening  Primrose  and  the  Hovering  Moth 

but  they  is  one  thini!;  what  you  never  tole  us  about 
yit.  Why  is  it  that  the  buds  on  so  meny  evening 
primroses  swell  up  so  big  and  never  open  ?  Some 
of  them  has  holes  into  them,  but  I  never  seen 
nothing  cum  out." 

This  same  question  must  have  been  mentally  pro- 
pounded by  many  observers 
who  have  noted  this  singular 
peculiarity  of  the  buds — two 
sorts  of  buds,  one  of  them 
long  and  slender,  and  with  a  -' 
lonofcr  tube  ;  the  other  short 
and  stout,  with  no  tube  at  all 
— both  of  which  are  shown 
in  proper  proportion  in  my 
illustration.  It  is  well  to 
contrast  their  outward  form, 
and  to  note  wherein  they 
differ.  In  the  normal  or 
lono-er  bud  the  tube  is  slen- 

dcr,  and  extended  to  a  length  of  an  inch  or  more, 
while  in  the  shorter  specimen  this  portion  is  reduced 
to  about  a  fifth  or  a  sixth  of  that  length,  while  the 
corolla  enclosed  within  its  sepals  is  much  shortened 
and  swollen. 

The  difference  in  the  shape  and  development  of 

51 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


these  two  buds  is  a  most  interesting  study,  as  bear- 
ing upon  the  conscious  intention  of  the  flower  as  an 
embodiment  of  a  divine  companion  to  an  insect. 
What  is  the  intention  involved  in  the  construction 
and  habit  of  this  flower  ? 

What  are  we  to  infer  from  the  shape  of  our  even- 
ing primrose  ?  Its  tube  is  long 
and  slender,  and  the  nectar  is 
secreted  at  its  farthest  extremity. 
Only  a  tongue  an  inch  or  so  in 
length  could  reach  it.  What 
insects  have  tongues  of  this 
length  ?  Moths  and  butterflies. 
The  primrose  blooms  at  night, 
when  butterflies  are  asleep,  and  is 
thus  clearly  adapted  to  moths. 
The  flower  opens  ;  its  stigma  is 
closed  ;  the  projecting  stamens 
scatter  the  loose  pollen  upon 
the  moth  as  it  sips  close  at  the  blossom's  throat, 
and  as  it  flies  from  flower  to  flower  it  conveys  it  to 
other  blossoms  whose  stigmas  are  matured.  The  ex- 
pression of  the  normal  bud  is  thus  one  of  affmity 
and  hope. 

Our  friend  just   quoted    mentions    having    seen 
"  holes "  on   the   other   swollen   buds,  and   there  is 

52 


l-;\Mn  l.'uiiifs  that  \vuk'j\vlu:n    • 

'  otliers  shcy- 

1-roni  tiTnKlUKlstliatkc.|.     - 
Then-  oJouf  totliemscK  y- 

-  all  dx\' 

Jiiuwlunili^^uiiliaiit  JiJ:^ 

awa\- 

L.ctilK'jMiclouss>.viv1  out 

'l^.-AviA-i'ivozetliut  rviairi'^, 

ni-out  ■• 


L 


53 


^Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


certain  to  be  a  hole  in  every  one  of  them  at  its 
maturity.  But  let  us  select  one  which  is  as  yet 
entire.  If  with  a  sharp  knife-point  we  cut  gently 
through  its  walls,  we  disclose  the  curious  secret  of 
its  abnormal  shape — "  the  worm  i'  the  bud,"  as  shown 
in  my  accompanying  sketch — and  what  an  eloquent 

story   of    blighted 
\w  hopes    i  t  s    interior 

condition  reveals  ! 
This  tiny  whitish 
caterpillar,  which  we 
disclose  in  the  petal 
dungeon,  has  been 
a  prisoner  since  its 
birth,  during  the 
early  growth  of  the 
bud.  One  by  one 
the  stamens  and  also 
the  stigma  have  been  devoured  for  food,  until  the 
mere  vestiges  of  them  now  remain.  With  no  sta- 
mens to  bequeath  pollen  and  no  stigma  to  welcome 
other  pollen,  what  need  to  open,  what  need  to 
elongate  a  corolla  tube  for  the  tongue  of  a  moth 
whose  visit  could  render  no  functional  service  ?  So 
thus  our  blighted  buds  refuse  to  open,  where  bloom- 
ing would  be  but  a  mockery. 

54 


The  Evening  Trimrose  and  the  Hovering  {Moth 


This  tiny  caterpillar  has  a  host 
of  cv^cnini^"  })rimrose  l)lossoms  laid 
to  his  door.  When  full  grown  he 
is  nearly  a  third  of  an  inch  in 
length,  at  which  time  he  concludes 
to  leave  his  life-long  abode,  which 
explains  the 
"  hole"  through  f\ |,^^  ^^ 
the  base  of 
the  bud.  If 
we  irather  a 


jllAr/.^ 


/?!!  ^tfi^jfi 


S  ^'Ci^ 


j  TWO   VARIETIES 

t  OF   I'KIMROSE   BUDS 


few  of  these  buds  and 
place  them  in  a  small  box, 
we  may  observe  the  remain- 
ing life  history  of  the  insect. 
After  creeping  from  its  petal 
home,  it  immediately  spins  a 
delicate  white  silken  cocoon, 

55 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

and  within  a  day  or  so  changes  to  a  chrysaHs.  At 
the  expiration  of  about  a  fortnight,  as  we  open  the 
box,  we  are  apt  to  liberate  one  or  more  tiny  gray 
moths,  which,  upon  examination,  we  are  bound  to 
confess  are  a  poor  recompense  for  the  blossom  for 
which  they  are  the  substitute. 

This  little  moth  is  shown  very  much  enlarged  in 
the  accompanying  tail-piece.  Its  upper  wings  are 
variously  mottled  with  gray  and  light  brown,  and 
thickly  fringed  at  their  tips,  while  the  two  lower 
wings  are  like  individual  feathers,  fringed  on  both 
sides  of  a  narrow  centre.  These  and  other  charac- 
ters ally  the  insect  with  the  great  group  known  as  the 
TineidcB,  of  which  the  common  clothes-moth  is  a 
notorious  example. 


56 


m0\ 


The  Noonday  Lesson 
OF  THE  Primrose 

Having  learned  the  twi- 
light lesson  of  the  waiting 
bud,  go    out    now  in  the 
hot,  sunny  noontime  and 
stroll    among    your  with- 
ered   primroses,    and    see 
what  they  can  teach  you. 
These  faded  blooms,  in  which  so  few  of  us  have 
the   slightest  interest,  may   often  be   seen  hanging 
like   a   chime   of  bells  on  the    drooping   stems  for. 
twenty-four  hours  after  they  first  bow  their  heads. 
Who  has  guessed  their  pretty  mystery  ? 

Is  this  a  mere  withered,  useless  blossom  that 
droops  upon  its  stem?  Is  it  not  rather  the  pret- 
tiest luminous  fairy  tent  that  ever  sheltered  a  day 
dream?  Last  night,  when  its  four  green  sepals 
burst  from  their  cone,  and  sprang  backward  to 
release  their  bright,  glossy  petals,  a  small  moth 
quickly  caught  the  signal  and  settled  in  quivering 

57. 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

contentment,  sipping  at  its  throat.  Its  wings  were 
of  the  purest  rose-pink,  bordered  with  yellow. 

All  throuorh  the  nio-ht  it  fluttered  amonor  the 
fresh  opening  flowers,  one  of  a  countless  host  of 
feathery  nocturnal  moths  and  "  millers."  But  as 
the  sunrise  has  stolen  upon  these  primroses,  the 
fickle  broods  have  all  forgotten  the  flowers  and 
dispersed  afar.  "All,"  did  I  say?  Oh,  no  ;  not  all. 
Let  us  turn  to  our  withered  blossoms  and,  one  by 
one,  look  within  their  bells.  Here  is  one  that  falls 
even  at  our  approach,  plainly  the  blossom  of  night 
before  last.  We  will  turn  our  attention  only  to  last 
night's  flowers. 

Many  show  no  peculiarity,  but  at  length  we  find 
one  that  appears  to  have  an  extra  petal  folded 
within  its  throat,  and  upon  opening  the  folds,  we 
disclose  our  faithful  nursling  with  pink  and  yellow 
wings,  whom  we  saw  last  night  fluttering  from 
flower  to  flower,  sipping  its  sweets  and  bearing  its 
golden  pollen  from  cup  to  cup.  The  earliest  twi- 
light sipper,  that  even  on  the  approach  of  dawn  is 
loath  to  leave  the  flower,  and  creeps  into  the  wilted 
bloom,  where  it  remains  concealed  through  the  fol- 
lowing day,  and  doubtless  occasionally  falls  with  it 
to  the  ground. 

In  the  color  of  its  markings  we  find  an  outward 

58 


The  Noonday  Lesson  of  the  Trimrose 


expression  of  its  beautiful  sympathy,  the  yellow 
margins  of  the  wings,  whicli  }^rotrude  from  the 
flower,  being  (juite  primrose-like,  and  the  pink  being 
refleeted  in  the  rosy  hue  which  the  wilting  primrose 
petals  so  often  assume,  especially  at  the  throat. 

These  pretty  moths  are  by  no  means  rare.  A 
careful  search  is  quite  certain  to  disclose  a  number 
of  them.  I  once  found  three  secreted  in  the 
tlowers  of  a  single  plant. 

The  progeny  of  our  tiny  pink  and  yellow  moth 
will  feed  upon  the  young  seed-pods  of  the  primrose 
at  a  later  date.  They  are  smooth,  green  caterpillars 
which  so  exactly  resemble  in  size  and  shape  the  seed- 
pods  themselves  that  even  a  vireo  or  worm-eating 
warbler,  who  is  supposed  to  know  a  green  caterpil- 
lar when  he  sees  one,  might  perch  among  these 
without  a  suspicion,  except,  perhaps,  at  the  tickling 
of  its  feet  by  the  rudely  touched  victim. 

Nearly  all  insect-eating  birds  are  very  fond  of 
these  green  caterpillars,  so  that  doubtless  none 
would  ever  reach  the  moth  stage,  and  the  primroses 
would  be  robbed  of  their  benefactors  if  their  protec- 
tive coloring  was  less  perfect. 

Even  in  winter,  when  the  stories  of  the  waiting 
bud,  the  blighted  blossom,  the  fairv  tent,  and  the 
dainty   pod   are  fmished,   the    primrose   still  has   a 

59 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

lesson  to  teach — a  lesson  of  wonderful  beauty  in  its 
perfectly  symmetrical  leaf  clusters,  carpeting  the 
earth  with  exquisite  complex  spiral  stars,  geomet- 
rical in  their  arrangement  and  perfect  patterns  for 
the  modeller,  sculptor,  decorator,  or  wood  carver. 


bo 


The  Riddle  of  the  Bluets    Guessed  by   Both 
Bees  and   Butterflies 


The  little  Ouakcr-ladies  of  the 
fields  are  by  far  the  most  inter- 
esting of  the  Madder  family,  and 
are  also  the  best  examples  of 
what  are  known  as  ''dimorphic" 
"heterostyled,"  or  two-formed 
flowers  that  we  have  in  our  wild 
garden. 

We  all  know  these  pretty, 
dainty  bluets,  whose  galaxy  of 
white  or  blue  stars  tints  whole 
meadows  like  a  light  snowfall. 
Perhaps  we  may  have  chanced  to 
notice  that  the  flowers  are  not  all 
constructed  alike,  but  the  proba- 
bilities are  that  we  have  seen 
them  all  our  lives  without  dis- 
covering this  fact,  obvious  as  it 
is  to  the  most  casual  observer. 


Fig. 


Fig.  2. 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

If  we  pluck  a  few  from  this  dense  cluster  beside 
the  path,  we  observe  that  the  throat  of  each  is 
swollen  larger  than  the  tube  beneath,  and  is  almost 
closed  by  four  tiny  yellow  anthers,  Fig.  i.  The  next 
and  the  next  clump  may  show  us  similar  flowers ; 
but  after  a  little  search  we  are  sure  of  finding"  a 
cluster  in  which  a  new  form  appears,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  2,  in  which  the  anthers  at  the  opening  are  miss- 
ing, and  their  place  supplied  with  a  little  forked 
stigma  !  The  tube  below  is  larger  than  the  first 
flower  for  about  two-thirds  its  length,  when  it  sud- 
denly contracts,  and  if  we  cut  it  open  we  find  the  four 
anthers  secreted  near  the  wide  base  of  the  tube. 
What  does  it  mean,  this  riddle  of  the  bluets  ?  This 
is  simply  the  little  plan  which  the  Houstonia  has  per- 
fected to  insure  its  cross-fertilization  by  an  insect, 
to  compel  an  insect  to  carry  its  pollen  from  one 
flower  and  deposit  it  upon  the  stigma  of  another. 
Once  realizing  this  as  the  secret,  we  can  readily  see 
how  perfectly  the  intention  is  fulfilled. 

In  order  to  make  it  clear,  I  have  drawn  a  pro- 
gressive series  of  pictures,  which  hardly  require 
description.  The  flowers  are  not  highly  developed 
enough  to  have  a  special  insect  sponsor.  They  are 
visited  by  various  small  bees,  butterflies  and  other 
insects.     At    the    left    is    an    insect    just  alighting 

62 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

on  a  clump  of  the  blossoms  of  the  high-anther  form 
indicated  below  it.  The  black  probe  represents  the 
insect's  tongue,  which,  as  it  seeks  the  nectar  at  the 
bottom  of  the  tube,  gets  dusted  at  its  thickened  top 
with  the  pollen  from  the  anthers.  We  next  see 
the  insect  flying  away,  the  probe  beneath  indicating 
the  condition  of  its  tongue.  It  next  alights  on 
clump  No.  2,  in  which  the  flowers  happen  to  be  of 
the  high-stigma  form,  as  shown  below.  The  tongue 
now  being  inserted  brings  the  pollen  against  the 
high  stigma,  and  fertilizes  the  flower,  while  at  the 
same  time  its  tip  comes  in  contact  with  the  low 
anthers,  and  gets  pollen  from  them.  We  next  see 
the  insect  flying  to  clump  No.  3,  the  condition  of 
its  tongue  being  shown  below.  Clump  No.  3  hap- 
pens to  be  of  the  first  low-stigma  form  of  flowers, 
and  as  the  tongue  is  inserted  the  pollen  at  its  tip 
is  carried  directly  to  the  low  stigma,  and  l/u's  flower 
is  fertilized  from  the  pollen  from  the  anthers  on  the 
same  level  in  the  previous  flower.  And  thus  the 
riddle  is  solved  by  the  insect.  From  clump  to 
clump  he  flies,  and  through  his  help  each  one  of 
the  pale  blue  blooms  is  sure  to  get  its  food,  each 
flower  fertilized  by  the  pollen  of  another. 

Another  beautiful  provision  is  seen  in  the  differ- 
ence in  size  of  the  pollen-grains  of  the  two  flowers, 

64 


The  Riddle  of  the  Uluets 


those  of  the  high  anthers  bcino;  much  larger  than 
those  from  the  lower  anthers.  These  larger  grains 
are  intended  for  the  high  stigma,  which  they  are 
sure  of  reaching,  while  those  of  smaller  size,  on  the 
top  of  the  tongue,  which  should  happen  to  be 
wiped  off  on  the  high  stigma,  are  too  small  to  be 
effective  for  fertilization,  accomplishing  their  pur- 
pose only  when  deposited  on  the  low  stigma  to 
which  they  are  adapted. 

The  flowers  with  high  stigmas  and  low  stamens 
are  never  found  on  the  same  plant  as  those  with  low 
stigmas  and  high  stamens— in  fact,  the  two  forms 
grow  in  separate  patches. 

The  stigma  of  either  variety  is  rarely  exactly  the 
same  length  as  the  stamen  producmg  the  pollen 
which  will  fertilize  it,  but  the  variation  is  very  slight. 

The  little  meadow  fritillary,  Brcnthis  bcllona,  is 
the  chief  butterfly  visitor  of  the  bluets,  but  it  is  not 
nearly  so  effective  a  worker  as  the  small  bees  that 
also  sip  these  sweets,  since  it  is  apt  to  fertilize  only 
the  short-styled  blossoms,  avoiding  the  stigma  in  the 
long-styled  flowers,  and  sipping  their  honey  from 

the  side. 

Much  the  same  mechanism  that  distinguishes  the 
bluets  may  be  seen  in  the  flax,  the  partridge-berry, 
the  bouvardia,  and  the  cowslii). 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

The  purple  loosestrife,  Lythrinn  Salicaria,  pro- 
duces flowers  whose  stamens  and  pistils  occur  in 
three  different  lengths.  In  this  species  only  pollen 
from  the  longest  stamens  can  fully  fertilize  the 
longest  pistils  ;  only  that  from  the  shortest  stamens 
the  shortest  pistils,  and  only  that  from  the  medium- 
length  stamens  the  medium-length  pistils. 

The  common  wood-sorrel  and  the  blue  pickerel 
weed  also  produce  trimorphic  or  three-formed 
flowers. 


66 


# 


^,..VV| 


r^!.^ 


CoMPOSiT.E  Manners  and  How  they 
Charm  the  Insects 


t 


If  the  dainty  mechanism  shown  in 
.  ^  the  barberry,  pulse,  primrose,  and 
madder  famiHes  excites  our  wonder, 
what  shall  be  said  of  the  revelations 
in  the  great  order  of  the  Compositae, 
where  each  so-called  flower,  as  in  the  dan- 
delion, daisy,  cone-flower,  marigold,  thistle, 
golden-rod,  aster,  and  innumerable  other 
species,  is  really  a  dense  cluster  of  minute 
flowers,  each  as  perfect  in  its  construction 
as  in  the  examples  already  mentioned,  each 
with  its  own  peculiar  plan  designed  to  insure  the 
transfer  of  its  own  pollen  to  the  stigma  of  its 
neighbor,  while  excluding  it  from  its  own  ? 

All  summer  long  the  cone-flower,  or  brown-eyed 
Susan,  Ritdbcckia  hirta^  shown  in  the  chapter 
heading,  blooms  in  our  fields ;  but  how  few  of 
us  imagine  the  strange  processes  which  are  being 
enacted  in  that  purple  cone  !     Let  us  examine  it 

67 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

closely.  If  we  pluck  one  of  the  blossom's  heads 
and  keep  it  in  a  vase  overnight,  we  shall  probably 
see  on  the  following  morning  a  tiny  yellow  ring  of 
pollen  encircling  the  outer  edge  of  the  cone.  In 
this  way  only  are  we  likely  to  see  the  ring  in  its 
perfection,  as  in  a  state  of  nature  the  wind  and 
insects  rarely  permit  it  to  remain. 

If  we  now  with  a  sharp   knife  make  a  vertical 
section,    as    shown    at    Fig.     i,   we    may    observe 


Fig.  I. 

the  conical  receptacle  studded  with  its  embryo 
seeds,  each  bearing  a  tiny  tubular  blossom.  Three 
distinct  forms  of  these  flowers  are  to  be  seen.  The 
lower  and  older  ones  are  conspicuous  by  their 
double  feathery  tails,  the  next  by  their  extended 
anthers  bearing  the  pollen  at  their  extremity,  and 
above  these  again  the  buds  in  all  stages  of  growth. 
These  various  states  are  indicated  in  Fig.  2. 

As  in  all  the  Compositae,  the  anthers  are  here 
united  in  a  tube,  the  pollen  being  discharged  within. 

68 


CompositiV  zMjjiners 


At  the  base  of  this  anther-tube  rises  the  pistil, 
which  gradually  elongates,  and  like  a  piston  forces 
out  the  pollen  at  the  top.  Small  insects,  in  creep- 
ing over  the  cone,  quickly  dislodge  it.  In  the  next 
stage  the  anthers  have  withered,  the  flower-tube 
elongated,  and  the  top  of  the  two-parted  pistil 
begins  to  protrude,  and  at  length  expands  its  tips, 
disclosing  at  the  centre  the  stigmatic  surface,  which 


Fig.  2. 


has    until    now  been    protected    by   close   contact, 
as  shown  in  the  section  at  the  right  of  Fig.  2. 

A  glance  at  Fig.  2  will  reveal  the  plan  involved. 
The  ring  of  pollen  is  inevitably  scattered  to  the 
stigmas  of  the  neighboring  flowers,  and  cross-fertil- 
ization continually  insured.  Similar  contrivances 
are  to  be  found  in  most  of  the  Compositae,  through 
the  same  method  being  variously  applied. 

69 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

The  practice  followed  by  the  Compositae  of 
grouping  many  small  flowers  in  one  head  is  un- 
rivalled for  utility  in  the  floral  world.  It  is,  how- 
ever, only  one  of  the  many  thrifty  traits  which  have 
enabled  these  hardy  folk  to  penetrate  to  all  quarters 
of  the  globe.  They  spare  no  effort  to  insure  suc- 
cess, attracting  both  pollen-gatherers  and  nectar- 
seekers,  and  still,  not  quite  certain  but  that  both 
these  classes  may  sometime  fail  them,  reserving  the 
power  of  self-fertilization  for  such  an  extremity. 

Their  method,  too,  of  scattering  their  seed  as 
shown  in  the  dandelion  and  thistle  has  aided  their 
march  around  the  world.  One  cannot  help  admir- 
ing their  persistency  and  delighting  in  their  beauty, 
despite  the  farmer's  lament. 


70 


M^-  -^4 


The  Mountain 
Laurel's  Embrace 

Let  us  now  look  at 
the  Heath  family.  The 
family  of  the  heath,  cran- 
berry, pyrola,  Androm- 
eda, and  mountain-laurel — how  do  these  blossoms 
welcome  their  insect  friends  ?  This  group  is  par- 
ticularly distinguished  by  the  unusual  exception  in 
the  form  of  its  anthers,  which  open  by  pores  at  their 
tips,  instead  of  the  ordinary  side  fissures.     Two  or 

71 


'Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

three  forms  of  these  anthers  are  shown  in  my  row 
of  stamens,  page  25. 

Seen  thus  in  their  detached  condition,  how 
incomprehensible  and  grotesque  do  they  appear ! 
And  yet,  when  viewed  at  home,  in  their  bell-shaped 
corollas,  their  hospitable  expression  and  greeting 
are  seen  to  be  quite  as  expressive  and  rational  as 
those  of  other  flowers.     Take  the  mountain-laurel, 

for    instance  ;     what    a 
sinsfular    exhibition    is 
this  which  we  may  ob- 
serve  on    any    twilight 
evening    in    the    laurel 
copse,   the    dense    clus- 
ters     of      pink  -  white 
bloom  waited  upon  by 
soft  -  winged    fluttering 
moths,   and  ever  and  anon   celebrating  its   cordial 
spirit  by  a  mimic   display  of    pyrotechnics   as   the 
anthers  hurl  aloft  their  tiny  showers  of  pollen  ! 

Every  one  is  familiar  with  the  curious  construc- 
tion of  this  flower,  with  its  ten  radiating  stamens, 
each  with  its  anther  snugly  tucked  away  in  a  pouch 
at  the  rim  of  its  saucer-shaped  corolla.  Thus  they 
appear  in  the  freshly  opened  flower,  and  thus  will 
they  remain  and  wither  if  the    flower    is  brought 

72 


'The  {Mountain  Laurel's  Embrace 

ill-doors  and  placed  in  a  vase  upon  our  mantel. 
Why?  Because  the  hope  of  the  blossom's  life  is 
not  fulfilled  in  these  artificial  conditions  ;  its  nat- 
ural counterpart,  the  insect,  has  failed  to  respond  to 
its  summons. 

But  the  twilight  cluster  in  the  woods  may  tell  us 
a  pretty  story.  Here  a  tiny  moth  hovers  above  the 
tempting  chalice,  and  now  settles  upon  it  with  eager 

n: 


Fig.  2. 

tongue  extended  for  the  nectar  at  its  centre.  What 
an  immediate  and  expressive  welcome  !  No  sooner 
has  this  little  feathery  body  touched  the  filaments 
than  the  eager  anthers  are  released  from  their 
pockets,  and,  springing  inward,  clasp  their  little 
visitor,  at  the  same  time  decorating  him  with  their 
compliments  of  webby  pollen.  A,  Fig.  2. 

73 


'Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

The  nectary  now  drained  of  its  sweets,  the  moth 
creeps  or  flutters  to  a  second  blossom,  and  its 
pollen-dusted  body  thus  coming  in  contact  with 
its  stigma,  cross-fertilization  is  accomplished.  The 
pollen  of  the  laurel  differs  from  that  of  most  of  the 
Heath  blooms,  its  grains  being  more  or  less  adher- 
ent by  a  cobwebby  connective  which  permeates  the 
mass  as  indicated  in  my  magnified  representation, 
B,  Fig.  2. 

It  is  probable  that  an  accessory  cross-fertilization 
frequently  results  from  a  mass  of  the  pollen  falling 
directly  upon  the  stigma  of  a  neighboring  blossom, 
or  even  upon  its  own  stigma  ;  but  even  in  the  latter 
case,  as  has  been  absolutely  demonstrated  as  a  gen- 
eral law  by  the  experiments  of  Darwin,  the  pollen 
from  a  separate  flower  is  almost  invariably  prepo- 
tent, and  leads  to  the  most  perfect  fruition,  and 
thus  to  the  survival  of  the  fittest — the  cross-fertil- 
ized. And,  in  any  event,  the  insect  is  to  be  cred- 
ited for  the  release  of  the  tiny  catapults  by  which 
the  pollen  is  discharged. 


1^ 


%ii^ 


74 


'3^ 


/? 


Andromeda's  Whim 


^'^?^^^\  f  ^^^^'  ^'^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^  considered 
c^A  fr'o  if^'^  ^^^  ^^i"»  exceptional  example  of  the 
//)\}^~^\     ''  Heath  family.      Let  us  look  at  a 

/   '^C?  '[;■/  more  perfect  type   of  the   order 

J '  to  which  it  belongs,  the  globular 

blossom  of  the  Andromeda,  A.  Ugustrina. 

Only  a  short  walk  from  my  studio  door  in  the 
country  I  recently  obseryed  its  singular  reception 
to  the  tiny  black-and-white  banded  bee,  which 
seems  to  be  its  especial  companion,  none  the  less 
constant  and  forgiving  in  spite  of  a  hospitality 
which,  from  the  human  standpoint,  would  certainly 
seem  rather  discouraging.  Fancy  a  morning  call 
upon  your  particular   friend.     You  knock    at   the 

75 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Gnests 

door,  and  are  immediately  greeted  at  the  threshold 
with  a  quart  of  sulphur  thrown  into  your  face.  Yet 
this  is  precisely  the  experience  of  this  patient  little 
insect,  which  manifests  no  disposition  to  retaliate 
with  the  concealed  weapon  which  on  much  less 
provocation  he  is  quick  to  employ.  Here  he  comes, 
eager  for  the  fray.  He  alights  upon  one  of  the 
tiny  bells  scarce  half  the  size  of  his  body.  Creep- 
ins:  down  beneath  it,  he  inserts  his  tonofue  into  the 
narrowed  opening.  Instantly  a  copious  shower  of 
dust  is  poured  down  upon  his  face  and  body.  But 
he  has  been  used  to  it  all  his  life,  and  by  heredity 
he  knows  that  this  is  Andromeda's  peculiar  whim, 
and  is  content  to  humor  it  for  the  sweet  recom- 
pense which  she  bestows.  The  nectar  drained,  the 
insect,  as  dusty  as  a  miller,  visits  another  flower,  but 
before  he  enters  must  of  necessity  first  pay  his  toll 
of  pollen  to  the  drooping  stigma  which  barely  pro- 
trudes beneath  the  blossom's  throat,  and  the  expect- 
ant seed-pod  above  welcomes  the  good  tidings  with 
visions  of  fruition. 

And  how  beautiful  is  the  minute  mechanical 
adaptation  by  which  this  end  is  accomplished  ! 
This  species  of  Andromeda  is  a  shrub  of  about 
four  feet  in  height,  its  blossoms  being  borne  in 
close    panicled    clusters    at     the    summit     of    the 

76 


zAiidromedas  IVJiiin 


branches.  The  individual  flower  is  hardly  more 
than  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  From  one 
of  three  blossoms  I  made  the  accompanying  series 
of  three  sectional  drawings.  The  first  shows  the 
remarkable  interior  arrangement  of  the  ten  stamens 
surrounding  the  pistil.  The  second  presents  a  sec- 
tional view  of  these  stamens,  showing  their  peculiar 


S-shaped  lilaments  and  ring  of  anthers — one  of  the 
latter  being  shown  separate  at  the  right  with  its  two 
pores  and  exposed  pollen.  The  freshlv  opened 
blossom  discloses  the  entire  ring  of  anthers  in  per- 
fect equilibrium,  each  with  its  two  orifices  closed  bv 
close  contact  with  the  style,  thus  retaining  the 
pollen.      It    will    readily   be   seen    that   an   insect's 

77 


'Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

tongue,  as  indicated  by  the  needle,  in  probing 
between  them  in  search  for  nectar,  must  needs  dis- 
locate one  or  more  of  the  anthers,  and  thus  release 
their  dusty  contents,  while  the  position  of  the 
stigma  below  is  such  as  to  escape  all  contact. 


HE  Homely  Figwort  Attractive 
TO  Mistress  Wasp 

In    my    initial     illustration     is 
shown  a  sketch  of  the  figwort,  or 
ScropJiulariiX,  a  tall,  spindling,  and 
apparently    altogether   uninterest- 
ing weed.     It  has  rather  fine,  luxu- 
riant  leaves,  it  is  true,  but  the  tall, 
curiously  branching  spray  of  small, 
purplish-olive    flowers  is  very   in- 
significant.    Though   so  ordinary 
in  appearance,  this  weed  has  the 
honor  of    giving   its   name  to  its 
large  and  important  family,  other 
common   members   of   which   are 
the  toadflax,  butter-and-eggs,  and 
foxglove.     The    figwort    has    not 
even  a  perfume,  like  the  mignon- 
ette, to  atone  for  its  plainness  ;  but 
it  has  an  odor,  if  not  a  perfume,  and  it  has  a  nectary 

79 


■^m%. 


"Blossom  Hosls  and  In  sect  Guests 

which  secretes  the  beads  of  sweets  for  its  pet  com- 
panion insects,  which  in  this  instance  do  not  happen 
to  be  bees  or  butterflies,  but  most  generally  wasps 
of  various  kinds,  as  these  insects  are  not  so  par- 
ticular as  to  the  quality  of  their  tipple  as  bees  are 
apt  to  be.  But  the  iigwort  has  found  out  gradually 
through  the  ages  that  zuasps  are  more  serviceable  in 
the  cross-fertilization  of  its  flowers  than  other  insects, 
and  it  has  thus  gradually  modified  its  shape,  odor, 
and  nectar  especially  to  these  insects. 

Let  us,  then,  take  a  careful  look  at  these  queer 
little  homely  flowers,  and  for  the  time  being  con- 
sider them  as  mere  devices  —  first,  to  insure  the 
visit  of  an  insect,  and,  second,  to  make  that  insect 
the  bearer  of  the  pollen  from  one  blossom  to  the 
stigma  of  another.  Here  we  see  a  flower  with 
three  distinct  welcomes  on  three  successive  days. 

The  flower-bud  usually  opens  in  the  morning, 
and  shows  a  face  as  at  A,  which  must  be  fully  un- 
derstood by  looking  at  the  side  section  shown  at  A'. 
The  anthers  and  pollen  are  not  yet  ripe,  but  the 
stigma  is  ready,  and  now  guards  the  doorway.  To- 
morrow morninof  we  shall  see  a  new  condition  of 
things  at  that  doorway,  as  seen  at  B  and  B\  The 
stigma  has  now  bent  down  out  of  the  way,  while 
two  anthers  have  unfolded  on  their  stalks  and  now 

80 


A.     First  Day's  Welcome. 
StiL;nia  at  tliu  Doorway. 


A^.     First  Day.     Sectional  View. 


B^.    Second  Dav.     Sectional  View. 


B.  Second  Day's  Welcome. 
Stigma  bent  downward  be- 
neath two  withered  Stamens 
at  the  Doorway. 


^ffe?' 


C.    Third  Day's  Welcome.    Four         D.     Fourth  Dav.     Fall  of  Blossom.    Its 
Stamens  at  the  Doorway.  mission  fulfilled. 


T3lossoni  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


shed    their    pollen    at    the    threshold.     The    third 

morning,  or   perhaps  even   sooner,    the   other  pair 

come  forward,  and  we  see  the 

opening  of  the  blossom  as  at  C. 

Blossoms   in    all   these   three 

conditions  are  to  be  found  on 

this  cluster. 

A  small  wasp  is  now  seen 
hovering  about  the  flowers, 
and  we  must  turn  our  atten- 
tion to  him  as  seen  in  Figs,  i,  2 
The  insect  alights,  we  will  assume,  on 
a  blossom  of  the  second  day.  Fig.  i, 
clinging  with  all  his  feet,  and  thrust- 
ing his  tongue  into  the  beads  of  nectar  shown  at  A' 
id  B'.  He  now  brings  his  breast 
:  thorax,  or  perhaps  the  underside 
of  his  head,  against  the 


Fig. 


pollen,  and  is  thorough- 
ly dusted  with  it.  Leav- 
ing the  blossom,  we  see 
him  in  flight,  as  at  Fig.  2, 
and  very  soon  he  is  seen 
to  come  to  a  freshly  opened  flower, 
^'  which  he  sips  as  before.    The  pollen 

is  thus   pushed   against   the  projecting   stigma,   as 

82 


The  Homely  Figwort  Attractive  to  Mistress  IVasp 
shown  at  Fig.  3,  and  thus,  one  by  one,  the  flowers 
are  cross-fertiHzed. 

The  stigma,  after  receiving 
pollen,  immediately  bends 
downward  and  backward,  as 
shown  in  B\  to  give  place 
to  the  ripening  anthers,  and 
shortly  after  the  last  pair  of 
them  have  shed  their  pol- 
len, the  blossom,  having 
then  fulfilled  its  functions, 
falls  off,  as  shown  at  D. 
This  may  be  on  the  after- 
noon of    the    third  day,   or  ^''''-  ^■ 

not  until  the  fourth.  If  not  visited 
by  insects,  it  may  chance  to  remain 
the  longer  time  ;  but  more  than  one 
tiny  wasp  gets  his  head  into  such  a 
blossom,  and  is  surprised  with  a 
)  tumble,  his  weight  pulling  the  blos- 
som from  its  attachment. 

The  result  of  that  pollen  upon  the 

stigma  is  quickly  seen  in  the  growing 

ovary  or  pod,  which  enlarges  rapidly 

on  the  few  succeeding  days,  as  in  E. 

Many  species  of  hornets  and   wasps,   large  and 

83 


^^^^Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

small,  are  to  be^^^iTlibc^uTthTfigw^^^^Tbi;^ 
occasionally  bees,  frequently  bumblebees,  which 
usually  carry  away  the  pollen  on  the  underside  of 
their  heads.  Who  shall  any  longer  refer  to  the  fig- 
wort  as  an  "  uninteresting  weed  "  ? 


»4 


:0m 


l^J 


'  J 


The  Wood-Betonv,   a  Proteg^  of  the 
Bumblebee 

Even  here  at  our  ell)o\v  in  the  woods  is  a  plant 
which  we  have  all  known  since  childhood.  The 
wood-betony,  it  is  called — to  select  its  worthier 
title,  Pedicular ia  Canadensis  —  a  common  early 
flower  of  our  woods,  closely  allied  to  the  figwort, 
and  blooming  in  company  with  the  uvularia,  Solo- 
mon's-seal,   crane's-bill,    downy    yellow    violet,    and 

85 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

*L . 

Others.  The  plants  grow  in  fern-like  tufts,  with 
scattered  blossom  heads  of  varied  shades  of  yellow, 
pink,  or  even  carmine. 

I  remember  reading,  a  few  years  since,  a  remark 
by  a  prominent  botanical  authority  concerning  this 
flower,  observing  that  its  fertilization  was  a  puzzle, 
as  insects  were  rarely  to  be  found  upon  it,  which 
observation,  taken  together  with  what  I  had  ob- 
served of  the  strange  form  and  disposition  of  the 
blossoms,  and  the  curiosity  awakened  by  my  reading, 
possessed  a  peculiar  significance  for  me. 

In  the  light  of  Darwin's  and  Mliller's  pages,  how 
eagerly  I  now  sought  the  haunt  of  my  wood-betony, 
and  how  readily,  too,  it  disclosed  the  secret  which 
had  heretofore  escaped  me  as  well  as  other  earnest 
though  too  hasty  seekers  !  A'isiting  a  certain  wood 
path,  where  the  plants  grew  in  profusion,  I  seated 
myself  among  them,  and  observed  carefully.  It 
was  in  the  middle  of  May,  and  the  flowers  were  in 
their  prime,  and  in  such  omnipresent  profusion  that 
I  felt  assured  some  honey-seeking  insect  must  soon 
be  tempted  thither  among  the  tens  of  thousands  of 
brimful  nectaries. 

I  had  not  long  to  wait  before  a  well-known 
''drowsy  hum"  fell  upon  my  ear,  and  a  large 
bumblebee  alighted    upon  a  flower-head  close   by. 

86 


7 he  IVood-Betony,  a  Trotege  of  the  bumblebee 

In  his  habitual  impetuous  fashion,  he  rifled  the 
sweets  from  one  and  another  of  the  blossom-heads, 
so  lost  in  his  absorbing  work  that  I  was  permitted 
to  steal  close  upon  him  and  observe  his  eager 
method,  for  method,  indeed,  there  was  in  every 
movement.  In  almost  every  instance  he  made  his 
approach  to  the  base  of  the  flower-head,  and  fol- 
lowed around  the  spiral  arrangement  of  the  flowers 
to  the  summit  of  the  cluster. 

It  needed  only  a  single  glance  to  receive  an  in- 
stant  revelation  of  the   reason  which  lay  beneath 
this  singular  and  always  heretofore  mysterious  spiral 
arrangement  of  the  flowers  — their  spiral  arrange- 
ment not  only,  but  the  individual  lateral  curve  of 
each  separate  blossom,  which  in  every  case  brought 
the  opening  of  its  tube  facing  to  the  left.     A  mo- 
ment's careful  attention  to  my  burly  little  interpreter 
revealed  also  the  strange  utility  of  the  singular  fis- 
sure down  the  right  side  of  each  corolla— a  slit  in 
the  flower-tube  extending  from  its  throat  half  way 
to  the  base  of  the  tube,  but  only  on  one  side.     Why 
on  one  side  and  not  on  the  other  ?     Why  always  on 
this  outer   curve  of   the  flower?     These  had  been 
questions    which    I    had    frequently    asked    myself 
when  examining    this   queer,  one-sided    formation. 
But  they  were  now  answered    to  my  satisfaction. 

87 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

The  whole  arrangement  of  these  flowers,  together 
with  their  individual  tendencies,  show  a  direct,  con- 
scious affiliation  to  the  bumblebee,  affording  as 
perfect  an  illustration  of  the  sympathetic  depend- 
ence between  flower  and  insect  as  we  may  find 
amonof  the  wonders  of  the  orchid  tribe  so  beauti- 
fully  and  clearly  disclosed  by  Darwin. 

What  is  this  peculiar  spiral  progression,  if  not  an 
inducement  of  convenience — an  inviting  flight  of 
stairs,  as  it  were  ?  What  is  this  individual  turning 
about  of  each  separate  flower,  if  not  a  welcome 
invitation  to  its  heart  ?  and  what  is  this  strange 
fissure  at  the  side  but  a  facility  to  aid  and  to 
**  speed  the  parting  guest  "  ?  And  through  all  this, 
how  beautifully,  by  what  wondrous  art,  has  his 
mission  been  fulfilled  !  Observe  our  bee  closely 
with  me.  He  now  alights  obliquely  at  the  base  of 
a  flower-head,  inserts  his  head  deep  within  the  tube 
of  the  lowest  flower,  the  strange  fissure  assisting  in 
the  expansion  of  its  tube  while  his  long  tongue 
probes  its  nectary.  His  wedge-shaped  head  has 
forced  apart  the  compressed  sides  of  the  corolla, 
thus  opening  the  pollen-box  (the  compressed 
anthers)  within  the  walls  of  the  arched  tip  of  the 
flower,  the  yellow  fertilizing  powder  falling  upon 
his  head. 


The  IVood-^etonw  a  Trotcge  of  the  Vi/mblebee 

He  has  now  emptied  the  horn  of  plenty,  when, 
ahiiost  without  withdrawino-  his  head,  he  sHps  his 
tongfue  throuirh  the  ready  exit — the  fissure  in  the 
flower-tube — to  find  an  expectant,  inviting  face 
turned  toward  him,  and  in  the  most  convenient 
possible  attitude  for  his  kiss. 

He  proceeds  as  before,  but  not  until  he  has 
unwittingly  paid  his  toll  and  won  his  right  of  way, 
having  deposited  the  requisite  touch  of  pollen  upon 
the  overhanging  tip  of  the  stigma,  and  thus  cross- 
fertilized  the  flower.  And  thus  he  pursues  his 
course  to  the  summit  of  the  spiral,  carrying  from 
its  latest  anthers  a  vivifying  touch  which  secures  in 
the  next  flower-head  he  visits  the  still  more  impor- 
tant function  of  absolute  cross-fertilization  from  a 
separate  plant.  Indeed,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
pollen  from  separate  heads  is  not  more  or  less  con- 
tinually intermingled,  and  this  end  secured  in  all 
the  flowers,  considering  that  only  a  grain  or  two  of 
the  thousands  are  required  to  insure  the  fertilization 
of  the  ovules. 

Within  an  hour  after  the  discovery  of  the  first  bee 
upon  the  wood-betony,  the  woods  were  murmuring 
with  their  mingled  hum.  I  counted  twenty  of  the 
insects  at  work  within  a  radius  of  ten  feet,  and  won- 
dered that  I   could  previously  have  been  so  blind 

89 


'Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

to  this  marvellous  drama  which  the  winged  actors 
of  wayside  and  thicket  had  been  enacting  every 
day  from  April  to  June  for  centuries  past. 


90 


Sage  Tea  for  the  Bees 
Horse-Balm  Honey 


(  I 


The  sage  is  representative 
of  the  large  botanical  order 
known  as  the  Mint  family,'"" 
the  labiates,  or  gaping,  two- 
lipped  flowers,  the  arched  hood  here  answering 
to  the  upper  lip,  the  spreading  base  forming  the 
lower  lip,  which  is  usually  designed  as  a  convenient 

"  Nearly  all   our   savory    herbs    belong    to    this    family — thyme, 
savory,  rosemary,  spearmint,  hyssop,  pennyroyal,  lavender,  etc. 

91 


IBlossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

threshold  for  the  insects  while  sipping  the  nectar 
deep  within  the  tube. 

Every  one  is  famihar  with  this  old-fashioned  fa- 
vorite of  the  country  garden,  its  lavender  flowers 
arranged  in  whorls  in  a  long  cluster  at  the  tip  of 
the  stem.  One  of  these  flowers,  a  young  one  from 
the  top  of  the  cluster,  is  shown  at  A,  Fig.  i,  in 
section,  the  long,  thread-like  pistil  starting  from 
the  ovary,  and  curving  upward  beneath  the  arch  of 
the  flower,  with  its  forked  stigma  barely  protrud- 
ing (B).  There  are  two  of  the  queer  stamens,  one 
on  each  side  of  the  opening  of  the  blossom,  and 
situated  as  shown,  their  anthers  concealed  in  the 
hood  above,  and  only  their  lower  extremity  appears 
below,  the  minute  growth  near  it  being  one  of  the 
rudiments  of  two  former  stamens  which  have  become 
aborted. 

If  we  take  a  flower  from  the  lower  portion  of  the 
cluster  (D),  we  find  that  the  thread-like  pistil  has 
been  elongated  nearly  a  third  of  an  inch,  its  forked 
stigma  now  hanging  directly  at  the  threshold  of  the 
flower.  The  object  of  this  will  be  clearly  demon- 
strated if  we  closely  observe  a  bee  upon  the  blos- 
soms. Let  us  suppose  he  has  reached  the  top 
of  the  cluster  among  the  younger  blossoms.  He 
creeps  up  the  outstretched   platform  of  the  flower, 

92 


Sage  Tea  for  the  "Bees 


and  has  barely  thrust  his  head  within  its  tube  when 
down  comes  the  pair  of  clappers  on  his  back  (C). 
Presently  he  backs  out,  bearing  a  orenerous  dab  of 
yellow  pollen,  which  is  further 
increased  from  each  subsequent 
flower.  He  has  now  finished 
this  cluster,  and  flies  to  the  next, 
alighting  as  usual  on  the  lower- 
most tier  of  bloom.  In  them 
the  elongated  stigma  now  hangs  ^ 
directly  in  his  path,  and  comes  in 
contact  with  the  pollen  on  his 
back  as  the  insect  sips  the  nectar. 
Cross-fertilization  is  thus  insured, 
and,  moreover,  cross-fertilization 
not  only  from  a  distinct  flower, 
but  from  a  separate  cluster,  or 
even  a  separate  plant ;  for  in 
these  jolder  stigmatic  flowers  the 
anther,  as  it  comes  down  upon  his 
back,  is  seen  to  be  withered,  hav- 
ing shed  its  pollen  several  days 
since,  the  supply  of  pollen  on  the  bee's  body  being 
sufficient  to  fertilize  all  the  stigmas  in  the  cluster,  until 
a  new  supply  is  obtained  from  the  pollen-bearing 
blossoms  above.     And  thus  he  continues  his  rounds. 

93 


Fig. 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


HORSE-BA  L  M  HONE  V 

Only  a  few  days  since,  while  out  on  a  drive,  I 
passed  a  luxuriant  clump  of  the  plant  known  as 
''  horse-balm."  I  had  known  it  all  my  life,  and 
twenty  years  previously  had  made  a  careful  analyti- 
cal drawing  of  the  mere  botanical  specimen.  What 
could  it  say  to  me  now  in  my  more  questioning 
mood  ?     Its  queer  little  yellow-fringed  flowers  hung 


Fig.  2. 


in  profusion  from  their  spreading  terminal  racemes. 
I  recalled  their  singular  shape  and  the  two  out- 
stretched stamens  protruding  from  their  gaping 
corolla,  and  could  distinctly  see  them  as  I  sat  in 
the  carriage.  I  had  never  chanced  to  read  of  this 
flower  in  the  literature  of  cross-fertilization,  and 
murmuring,  half  aloud,  "What  pretty  mystery  is 
yours,  my  Collinsonia  ? "  prepared  to  investigate. 

94 


Sage  Tea  for  the  ^ees 


ft  /x^ 


.^^ 


/f.:^,#^  t  ■■  ^t 


,  z^- 


,  '  '***     < 


^X'"^^         -^ 
r^-^-^      -.^j 


COLLINSONIA  , 

What   I   observed   is  pic- 
tured severally  at  Fig.  2,  the 
flowers,  with  their  two  spreading 
stamens  and  the  decidedly  excep- 
tional   and    unsymmetrical   posi- 
tion of  the  long  style  extending 
to   the  side,    being   shown   from 
above.     A   small   nectar-seeking 
bumblebee  had  ai)proached,  and  in  alighting  upon 
the    fringed    platform    grasped   the    filaments    for 

95 


\'0  \ 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Gnests 

support,  and  thus  clapped  the  pollen  against  his 
sides.  Reasoning  from  analogy,  it  would  of  course 
be  absolutely  clear  that  this  pollen  has  thus  been 
deposited  where  it  will  come  in  contact  with  the 
stigma  of  another  flower.  So,  of  course,  it  proved. 
In  the  bee's  continual  visits  to  the  several  flowers, 
he  came  at  length  to  the  younger  blooms,  where  the 
forked  stigmas  were  turned  directly  to  the  front, 
while  the  immature  stamens  were  still  curled  up  in 
the  flower  tubes.  Even  the  unopened  buds  showed 
a  number  of  species  where  the  early  matured  stigma 
actually  protruded  through  a  tiny  orifice  in  pre- 
cisely the  right  position  to  strike  the  pollen-dusted 
body  of  the  bee,  as  he  forced  his  tongue  through 
the  tiny  aperture."" 


*  In  numerous  instances  observed  since  the  above  was  written,  I 
have  noted  the  larger  bumblebees  upon  the  blossom.  These  insects 
have  a  dilTerent  method  of  approach,  hanging  beneath  the  flower, 
the  anthers  being  clapped  against  their  thorax  at  the  juncture  of  the 
wings  instead  of  the  abdomen,  as  in  the  smaller  bee. 


95 


^^^^^fi!U>-  The  Milkaveed  : 

v-TR^   -.!  A   Bluebeard  Blossom 

'^^^^^^J,-'-^  The  milkweed  as  food   for  the 

I  progeny  of  certain  species  of  but- 

I  terflies  was  considered  in  *'  Sharp  Eyes  "  ; 
the  present  article,  therefore,  is  devoted 
to  the  sino^ular  hospitaHty  which  its  blossoms  ex- 
tend to  the  bee,  a  hospitality  which  is  nowhere 
matched  among  Flora's  minions,  and  would  seem 
occasionally  in  need  of  supervision. 

Just  outside  the  door  here  at  my  country  studio, 
almost  in  touch  of  its  threshold,  year  after  year 
there  blooms  a  large  clump  of  the  common  milkweed, 
Acclcpias  corniita,  and,  what  with  the  fragrance 
of  its  purple  pompons  and  the  murmurous  music  of 
its  bees,  its  fortnight  of  bloom  is  not  permitted  to 
be  forgotten  for  an  instant.  Only  a  moment  ago  a 
whiff  of  more  than  usual  redolence  from  the  open 
window  at  which  I  am  sitting  reminded  me  that  the 
flowers  were  even  now  in  the  heyday  of  their  prime, 
and  the  loud  droning  music  betokened  that  the  bees 
were  making  the  most  of  their  opportunities. 

97 


blossom  Hosts  Jiui  Insect  Guests 

Yielding  to  the  temptation,  I  was  soon  standing 
in  the  midst  of  the  plants.  The  purple  fragrant 
umbels  of  bloom  hung  close  about  me  on  all  sides, 
each  flower,  with  its  five  generous  horns  of  plenty, 
drained  over  and  over  again  by  the  eager  sipping 
swarm. 

But  the  July  sun  is  one  thing  to  a  bee  and  quite 
another  thing  to  me.  I  have  lingered  long  enough, 
however,  to  witness  again  the  beautiful  reciprocity, 
and  to  realize  anew,  with  awe  and  reverence,  how 
divinely  well  the  milkweed  and  the  bee  understand 
each  other.  After  a  brief  search  among  the  blossom 
clusters,  I  return  to  my  seclusion  with  a  few  inter- 
esting specimens,  which  may  serve  as  a  text  here  at 
my  desk  by  the  open  window. 

Two  months  hence  occasional  silky  messengers 
will  float  away  from  the  glistening  clouds  about  the 
open  milkweed  pods,  but  whoever  thanks  the  bees 
of  June  for  them  ?  The  flower  is  but  a  bright  an- 
ticipation— an  expression  of  hope  in  the  being  of 
the  parent  plant.  It  has  but  one  mission.  All  its 
fragrance,  all  its  nectar,  all  its  beauty  of  form  and 
hue  are  but  means  toward  the  consummation  of 
the  eternal  edict  of  creation — "  increase  and  mul- 
tiply." To  that  end  we  owe  all  the  infinite  forms, 
designs,  tints,  decorations,   perfumes,    mechanisms, 

98 


The  (Milkweed:  ^  Bluebeard  "Blossom 

and  other  seemingly  inexplicable  attributes.  Its 
threshold  must  bear  its  own  peculiar  welcome  to 
its  insect,  or  perhaps  to  its  humming-bird  friend,  or 
counterpart ;  its  nectaries  must  both  tempt  and  re- 
ward his  coming,  and  its  petals  assist  his  comfort- 
able tarrying. 

Next  to  the  floral  orchids,  the  mechanism  of  our 
milkweed  blossom  is,  perhaps,  the  most  complex  and 
remarkable,  and  illustrates  as  perfectly  as  any  of  the 
orchid  examples  given  in  Darwin's  noble  work  the 
absolute  divine  intention  of  the  dependence  of  a 
plant  species  upon  the  visits  of  an  insect. 

Our  milkweed  flower  is  a  deeply  planned  con- 
trivance to  insure  such  an  end.  It  fills  the  air  with 
enticing  fragrance.  Its  nectaries  are  stored  with 
sweets,  and  I  fancy  each  opening  bud  keenly  alert 
with  conscious  solicitude  for  its  affinity.  Though 
many  other  flowers  manage  imperfectly  to  perpet- 
uate their  kind  in  the  default  of  insect  intervention, 
the  milkweed,  like  most  of  the  orchids,  is  helpless 
and  incapable  of  such  resource.  Enclose  this  bud- 
ded umbel  in  tarlatan  gauze  and  it  will  bloom  days 
after  its  fellow-blooms  have  fallen,  anticipating  its 
consummation,  but  no  pods  will  be  seen  upon  this 
cluster. 

What  a  singular  decree  has  Nature  declared  with 

99 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

reference  to  the  milkweed  !  She  says,  in  plainest 
terms,  "  Your  pollen  must  be  removed  on  the  leg 
of  an  insect,  preferably  a  bee,  or  your  kind  shall 
perish  from  the  face  of  the  earth."  And  what  is 
the  deep-laid  plan  by  which  this  end  is  assured  ? 
My  specimens  here  on  the  desk  will  disclose  it  all. 
Here  are  two  bees,  a  fly,  and  a  beetle,  each  hang- 
ing dead  by  its  legs  from  a  flower,  an  extreme  sac- 
rificial penalty,  which  is  singularly  frequent,  but 
which  was  certainly  not  exacted  nor  contemplated  in 
the  design  of  the  flower.  A  careful  search  among 
almost  any  good-sized  cluster  of  milkweeds  will 
show  us  many  such  prisoners.  As  in  all  flowers,  the 
pollen  of  the  milkweed  blossom  must  come  in  con- 
tact with  its  stigma  before  fruition  is  possible.  In 
this  peculiar  family  of  plants,  however,  the  pollen 
is  distinct  in  character,  and  closely  suggests  the 
orchids  in  its  consistency  and  disposition.  The 
yellow  powdery  substance  with  which  we  are  all 
familiar  in  ordinary  flowers  is  here  absent,  the  pollen 
being  collected  in  two  club-shaped  or,  more  prop- 
erly, spatula-shaped  masses,  linked  in  pairs  at  their 
slender  prolonged  tips,  each  of  which  terminates  in 
a  sticky  disk-shaped  appendage  united  in  V-shape 
below.  These  pollen  masses  are  concealed  in 
pockets  (B)   around  the  cylindrical  centre  of  the 


The  €VliIkwecd :   ^  "Bluebeard  "Blossom 


flower,  the  disks  only  being  exposed  at  the  surface, 
at  five  equidistant  points  around  its  rim,  where 
they  lie  in  wait  fur  the  first  unwary  foot  that  shall 
touch  them. 

A  glance  at  the  two  views  of  this  central  portion 
of  the  flower,  as  it  appears  through  my  magnifying- 


glass — the  honey-horns  and  sepals  having  been 
removed — will,  I  think,  indicate  its  peculiar  anat- 
omy or  mechanism.  No  sfigina  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  flower,  the  stigmatic  surface  which  is  to  receive 
the  pollen  being  concealed  within  five  compart- 
ments, each  of  which  is  protected  by  a  raised,  tent- 
like covering,  cleft  along  its  entire  apex  by  a  fine 
fissure  (A).      0?Usidc  of  each  of  these  and  entirely 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

separated  from  the  stigma  in  the  cavity  lie  the 
pollen  masses  within  their  pockets,  each  pair  uniting 
at  the  rim  below  in  \"-shape,  the  union  at  the  lower 
limit  of  the  fissure. 


.  .-.v: 


't;,  .■•  %' 


T    Ly 


Bluebeard's    Methods 

With  a  knowl- 
edore  of  the  unusu- 
al  structure  of  the 
milkweed  blossom 
now  at  our  dispo- 
sal,  let  us  visit   the 

"W\  P^^^^^  "^^^^  observe 
clearly  how  its  care- 
fully planned  and 
delicately  adjusted 
members  perform 
and  sometimes  ex- 
ceed the  duties  of 
their  office. 

A  bee  alights  upon  the  flower 
— the  object  of  its  visit  being,  of 
course,  the   sweets  located  in  the 
five     horn-shaped     nectaries.      In 
order  to  reach  this  nectar,  the  insect  must 
hang    to    the   bulky  blossom.      Instantly, 
and  almost   of   necessitv,   it  would  seem, 
one  or  more  of  the  feet  are  seen  to  enter 
the  upper  opening  of  the  fissure,  and  dur- 
ing the  insect's  movements  are  drawn  through  to 

103 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

the  base.  The  foot  is  thus  conducted  directly  be- 
tween the  two  viscid  disks,  which  immediately  cling 
closer  than  a  brother,  and  as  the  foot  is  finally  with- 
drawn, it  brings  with  it  the  pollen  which  it  has 
pulled  from  its  cell.  The  bee  now  released  seeks 
a  fresh  flower,  and  the  same  result  follows,  the  leg 
almost  inevitably  entering  the  fissure,  and  this  time 
drawing  in  the  pollen  directly  against  the  sticky 
stigmatic  surface  within.  When  the  five  honey- 
horns  have  been  drained,  and  as  our  bee  seeks  to 
leave  the  flower,  he  is  plainly  detained  by  this  too 
hearty  ''shake"  or  "grip"  of  his  host,  and  quite 
often  must  exert  a  slight  struggle  to  free  himself. 
As  the  foot  is  thus  forcibly  torn  away,  the  pollen 
mass  is  commonly  scraped  entirely  off  and  retained 
within  the  fissure,  or  perhaps  parts  at  the  stalk, 
leaving  the  terminal  disk  clinging  on  the  insect's 
leg.  O^ccasionally,  when  more  than  one  leg  is  en- 
tangled, the  dangling  blossom  is  tossed  and  swayed 
for  several  seconds  by  the  vigorous  pulling  and 
buzzing,  and  a  number  of  these  temporary  captives 
upon  a  single  milkweed  plant  are  always  to  be 
seen. 

Not  unfrequently  the  mechanism  so  w^ell  adapted 
exceeds  its  functions  and  proves  a  veritable  trap,  as 

indicated  in    my   specimens.      I   have    found   three 

104 


"\ 


C 


\U 


'   X 


..-^ 


'..^^^^ 


T 


^-. 


N 


105 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

dead  bees  thus  entrapped  in  a  single  umbel  of  blos- 
soms, having  been  exhausted  in  their  struggles  for 
escape ;  and  a  search  among  the  flowers  at  any  time 
will  show  the  frequency  of  this  fatality,  the  victims 
including  gnats,  flies,  crane-flies,  bugs,  wasps, 
beetles,  and  small  butterflies.  In  every  instance 
this  prisoner  is  found  dangling  by  one  or  more 
legs,  with  the  feet  firmly  held  in  the  grip  of  the  fis- 
sure. 

Almost  any  bee  which  we  may  catch  at  random 
upon  a  milkweed  gives  perfect  evidence  of  his  sur- 
roundings, his  toes  being  decorated  with  the  tiny 
yellow  tags,  each  successive  flower  giving  and  tak- 
ing, exchanging  compliments,  as  it  were, 'with  its 
fellows.  Ordinarily  this  fringe  can  hardly  prove 
more  than  an  embarrassment ;  but  we  may  fre- 
quently discern  an  individual  here  and  there  which 
for  some  reason  has  received  more  than  his  share  of 
the  milkweed's  compliments.  His  legs  are  con- 
spicuously fringed  with  the  yellow  tags.  He  rests 
with  a  discouraged  air  upon  a  neighboring  leaf, 
while  honey,  and  even  wings,  are  seemingly  for- 
gotten in  his  efforts  to  scrape  off  the  cumbersome 
handicap. 

An  interesting  incident,  apropos  of  our  embar- 
rassed bee,  was  narrated  to  me  by  the  late  Alphonso 

io6 


'Bluebejrd^s  zMethoch 


Wood,  the  noted  botanist.  He  had  received  by 
mail  from  California  a  small  box  containing*  a  hun- 
dred or  more  dead  bees,  accompanied  by  a  letter. 
The  writer,  an  old  bee-keeper,  had  experience,  and 
desired  enlightenment  and  advice.  The  letter  stated 
that  his  bees  were  "dying  by  thousands  from  the 
attacks  of  a  peculiar  fungus."  The  ground  around 
the  hive  was  littered  with  the  victims  in  all  stages 
of  helplessness,  and  the  dead  insects  were  found 
everywhere  at  greater  distances  scattered  around  his 
premises. 

It  needed  only  a  casual  glance  at  the  encumbered 
insects  to  see  the  nature  of  the  malady.  They  were 
laden  two  or  three  layers  deep,  as  it  were,  with  the 
pollen  masses  of  the  milkweed.  The  botanist  wrote 
immediately  to  his  anxious  correspondent,  inform- 
ing him,  and  suggesting  as  a  remedy  the  discovery 
and  destruction  of  the  mischievous  plants,  which 
must  be  thriving  somewhere  in  his  neighborhood. 
A  subsequent  letter  conveyed  the  thanks  of  the  bee- 
keeper, stating  that  the  milkweeds — a  whole  field 
of  them — had  been  found  and  destroyed,  and  the 
trouble  had  immediately  ceased. 

I    am    not    aware    that    Mr.    Wood    ever   ascer- 
tained the  particular  species   of   milkweed  in  this 

case.      It  is  not  probable  that  our  Eastern  species 

107 


blossom  Hosts  J/id  Insect  Guests 

need  ever  seriously  threaten  the  apiary,  though  un- 
questionably large  numbers  of  bees  are  annually 
destroyed  by  its  excessive  hospitality. 

Allied  to  the  milkweed  is  another  plant,  the  dog- 
bane, Apocynum,  which  has  a  similar  trick  of  en- 
trapping its  insect  friends.  Its  droopmg,  fragrant, 
bell-shaped  white  flowers  and  long  slender  pods  will 
help  to  recall  it.  But  its  method  of  capture  is  some- 
what similar  to  the  milkweed.  The  anthers  are 
divided  by  a  V-shaped  cavity,  into  which  the  insect's 
tono^ue  is  oruided  as  it  is  withdrawn  from  the  flower, 
and  into  which  it  often  becomes  so  tightly  wedged 
as  to  render  escape  impossible.  I  have  found  small 
moths  dangling  by  the  tongue,  as  seen  in  the  illus- 
tration below. 


'i^    ^  H(^ 


io8 


The  Lords  and  Ladies 

OF    THE 

Arum  Family 

The  most  remarkable 
member   of   the  Arum 
family  is  a  British  subject. 
Its  method  of  welcome  and 
a2c    rcvoir    to    insects     is 
unique  and  truly  astonish- 
ing.    All  of  the  flowers  we 
have  so   far  examined   are 
more  or  less  automatic  in 
their  movements,  but  the  wild 
arum    seems  to  display   almost 
conscious  mechanism. 

A  representation  of  this  arum 
is  shown  in  Fig.  i,  and  a  cross- 
section  at  A,  properly  indexed. 
How  confidently  would  the 
superficial— nay,  even  careful — examination  of  one 
of  the  old-time  botanists  have  interpreted  its  struc- 
ture :  "How  simple  and  perfect  the  structure! 
Observe  how  the  anthers  are  placed  so  that  pollen 
shall  naturally  fall  directly  on  the  stigmas  and  fer- 
tilize them  !"  Such  w^ould  indeed  appear  to  be 
intended,  until   it    is    actually  discovered   that   the 

lOQ 


'Blossom  Hosts  ami  Insect  Guests 


Fig. 


stigmas  have  withered  when  the  pollen  is  shed — a 
device  which,  acting  in  association  with  the  little 
ring  of  hairs,  tells  a  strange  story. 
It  is  not  my  fortune  to  have  seen 
one  of  these  singular  blossoms, 
//  A  ]  but  from  the  description  of  the 
J  process  of  fertilization  given  in 
Hermann  Muller  s  wonderful  work, 
aided  by  a  botanical  illustration  of 
the  structure  of  the  flower,  I  am 
readily  enabled  to  picture  the  pro- 
gressive stages  of  the  mechanism. 

In  the  first  stage  (B,  Fig.  2),  small  flies  with 
bodies  dusted  with  pollen  from  a  previous  arum 
blossom  are  entering  the  narrowed  tube,  easily 
passing  through  the  drooping  fringe  of  hairs.  Nec- 
tar is  secreted  by  the  stigmas,  and  here  the  flies 
assemble,  thus  dusting  them  with  pollen.  Their 
appetite  temporarily  satisfied,  the  insects  seek  es- 
cape, but  find  their  exit  effectually  barred  by  the 
intruding  fringe  of  hairs  (C).  In  this  second  stage, 
the  stigmas,  having  now  been  fertiHzed,  have 
withered,  at  the  same  time  exuding  a  fresh  supply 
of  nectar,  which  again  attracts  the  flies,  whereupon, 
as  shown  at  D,  the  anthers  open  and  discharge  their 
pollen  upon  the  insects.      In  the  fourth  stage  (E), 


The  Lords  and  Ladies  of  the  zArum  Family 


all  the  functions  of  the  flower  having  now  been  ful- 
filled, the  fringe  of  hairs  withers,  and  the  imprisoned 


Fig.  2. 

pollen-laden  flies  are  permitted  to  escape  to  another 
flower,  where  the  beautiful  scheme  is  again  enacted. 

JACK-IN-  THE-PULPIT 

These  "lords"  and  ''ladies"*  of  the  village  lanes 
are  the  foreign  counterparts  of  our  well-known 
Jack-in-the-pulpit,  or  Indian  turnip,  the  sleek 
preacher  of  which  stands  so  erect  beneath  his  pur- 
ple-streaked canopy. 

Jack-in-the-pulpit,  like  the  arum,  has  the  streaked 
hood,  and  the  "lords"  and  "ladies"  dwell  generally 

*The  arums  with  the  purple-tinged  hoods  are  called  the  "lords  " 
and  those  with  light  green  hoods  the  "  ladies,"  because  this  differ- 
ence in  color  was  formerly  thought  to  indicate  the  sex  of  the  flower 
within.  Later  investigations,  however,  prove  that  while  the  purple- 
tinged  ones  are  more  often  "lords"  than  "ladies,"  they  are  not 
invariably  "lords." 


"Blossom  Hosts  ami  Insect  Guests 


under  separate  canopies  —  that  is,  the  stigmatic 
flowers  and  pistillate  flowers  are  found  in  different 
blossoms.  Jack  stands,  you  will  find,  on  a  bulb 
which,  in  the  pistillate  flowers,  is  composed  of  small 
ovules,  and,  in  the  stigmatic  flowers,  is  covered  with 
thread-like  filaments.  As  in  the  arum,  the  coloring 
of  the  hood  is  not  an  infallible  guide  to  the  sex  of 
the  flower. 

Small  fungus  gnats  visit  these  blossoms  and  are 
often  imprisoned  in  their  deep  chambers,  for, 
though  entrance  is  easy,  egress  is  difficult,  the  way 
being  blocked  by  the  projection  of  the  spadix. 
Many  insects  escape  from  this  prison  cell  through 
the  folds  of  the  floral  envelope,  but  many  others 
perish.  It  is  thought  that  Jack-in-the-pulpit  is  in  a 
transition  state  and  that  its  plan  to  insure  cross-fer- 
tilization is  not  yet  perfected.  This  view  is  borne 
out  by  the  fact  that,  although  the  intention  of  the 
plant  is  to  separate  its  staminate  and  pistillate 
flowers,  they  are  frequently  found  on  the  same 
spadix.  When  Jack  has  reached  the  ideal  state 
which  he  aims  at,  his  own  and  the  insects'  interests 
will  be  provided  for  in  a  better  fashion. 

THE  HERMIT  OF  THE  BOG 

By  far  the  humblest  of  all  the  arums  is  the  skunk- 
cabbage.     This  lowly  hermit  of  the  bog  is  the  first 


The  Larch  jiid  Ljdics  of  the  z/Jnini  Familv 


living  thing  to  extend  to  us  a  vernal  greeting,  actu- 
ally braving  the  barriers  of  ice  to  bring  us  the  mes- 
sage   which    it    receives    from    mother    earth    long 
before  the  wood  flower  hears  it  in  the  south  wind  or 
the  lisp  of  the  bluebird  tells  it  to  the   trees.      For 
this    reason,   if  no   other,  we  should  welcome    our 
purple-mottled,  hooded  blossom,  even  though  it  is 
not   graced  with   perfume  nor  blest  with  a  poetic 
name  and  has  not  been  fitted  by  nature  to  appear  to 
advantage  in  a  button-hole. 
.?!,       If  you  are  disposed  to  question  its  right  to  the 
MM  i^^i'i'i^'  <^^f  blossom,  compare  it  with  the  beautiful  calla, 
and  you  will  at   once   recognize  their  kinship. 


% 

'^^J^ 

^V  1» 

l^wfc^f  -sa 

"  -  fl 

./ 

13 


.r-^^&»-« 


'Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

Observe,  too,  the  throngs  of  flies  and  bees  that 
hasten  to  visit  its  parlors.  They  long  ago  gave  it  a 
place  in  their  posy,  and  though  their  taste  may  not 
accord  with  ours,  their  judgment  cannot  be  disputed. 
The  stigmatic  flowers  mature  on  the  skunk-cab- 
bage's spadix  before  the  pistillate  ones.  Like  other 
blossoms  with  foul  odors,  this  one  is  especially 
adapted  for  fertilization  by  scavenger  flies.  Though 
bees  visit  it,  they  probably  do  so  because  at  the 
season  when  it  blooms  they  have  no  choice  of 
flowers,  and  not  because  it  attracts  them.  Natural- 
ized European  bees  are  the  chief  visitors ;  and  since 
our  flora  is  not  well  adapted  to  them,  they  have  to 
make  many  shifts,  for  a  living,  that  cannot  fail  to 
be  disagreeable.  They  often  pay  with  their  lives 
for  their  trespassing,  for  while  the  invited  guests 
find  no  difficulty,  the  banquet  finished,  in  leaving 
the  blossom,  the  bee  who  has  barely  forced  an  en- 
trance frequently  fails  to  make  good  his  escape 
through  the  narrow  doorway,  and  either  dies  of 
starvation  or  falls  a  victim  to  the  wise  spiders  who 
spread  their  catch-alls  within  these  horns  of  plenty. 


aJ' 


The  Swaying  Iris 

■'  Born  ill  the  purple,  born  to  joy  and  pleasance, 
Thou  dost  not  toil  nor  spin, 
But  makest  glad  and  radiant  with  thy  presence 
The  meadow  and  the  lin." 

We  have  the  good  fortune  to  num- 
ber among  our  native    wild    flowers 
the    beautiful    fleur-de-lis, 
y    commonly  called  the  blue- 


flaof,  the  blossom  chosen 
by  the  kings  of  France  for 
their  emblem. 

The  graceful  family  to 
which  this  blossom  be- 
longs has  been  most  ap- 
propriately named  for  the 
youthful  goddess  of  the 
rainbow,  the  fair  lady  Iris. 
Our  flower,  however,  is  a 
goddess  in  another  court 
than  that  of  Olympus,  and  her  courtiers,  though 
winged  folk,  can  lay  no  claim  to  the  supernatural. 
It  may  well  be  doubted,  however,  that  the  goddess 
of  the  clouds,  in  all  the  glory  of  court  dress  and 
attendance,  ever  presented  a  prettier  picture  than  a 
company   of  these   earthly   flowers,   set   in   velvety 

115 


'Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Gnests 

moss,  clothed  in  royal  purple,  and  surrounded  by 
groups  of  gayly  attired,  fluttering  admirers. 

The  blue-flag  is  a  conspicuous  example  of  a  flower 
which  has  guarded  itself  against  self-fertilization  and 
which  is  beautifully  calculated  to  secure  the  oppo- 
site result. 

In  most  flowers,  with  the  exception  of  the  or- 
chids, the  stamens  and  pollen  are  plainly  visible  ; 
but  who  ever  sees  the  anthers  of  the  blue-flag? 
Surely  none  but  the  analytical  botanist  and  the 
companion  insect  to  whom  it  is  so  artfully  adjusted 
and  so  demonstrative.  This  insect  is  likely  to  be 
either  a  bumblebee  or  a  species  of  large  fly. 

In  apt  illustration  of  Sprengel's  theory  of  the 
*'  pathfinder,"  the  insect  does  not  alight  at  the  cen- 
tre of  the  flower,  but  upon  one  of  the  three  large 
drooping  sepals,  whose  veins,  converging  to  the  nar- 
row trough  above,  indicate  the  path  to  the  nectar. 
Closely  overarching  this  portion  is  a  long  and  narrow 
curved  roof — one  of  three  divisions  to  the  style,  each 
surmounting  its  veined  sepals.  Beneath  this  our 
visiting  bee  disappears,  and  a  glance  at  my  sectional 
drawing  shows  what  happens.  Concealed  within, 
against  the  ridge-pole,  as  it  were,  the  anther  awaits 
his  coming,  and  in  his  passage  to  and  from  the  nec- 
tar below  spreads  its  pollen  over  his  head  and  back. 

ii6 


The  Swaying  Iris 


Having  backed  out  of  this  segment  of  the  blossom 
as  shown  at  A,  he  proceeds  to  the  next ;  but  the 
shelf-hke  stigma  awaits  him  at  the  door,  and  scrapes 
off  or  rubs  off  a  few  grains  of  the  pollen  from  his  back 
(B).  Thus  he  continues  until  the  third  segment  is 
reached,  from  which  he  carries  away  a  fresh  load  of 


pollen  to  another  flower.  It  will  be  seen  that  only 
the  outer  side  of  this  appendage  is  stigmatic,  and 
that  it  is  thus  naturally  impossible  for  the  blue-flag 
to  self-fertilize — only  one  instance  of  thousands  in 
which    the    anther    and  stigma,    though  placed   in 

117 


'Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

the  closest  proximity,  and  apparently  even  in  con- 
tact— seemingly  with  the  design  of  self-fertilization 
— are  actually  more  perfectly  separated  functionally 
than  if  in  separate  flowers,  the  insect  alone  consum- 
mating their  affinity. 

The  blue-flag  suffers  constantly  from  the  visits  of 
pilferers,  chiefly  butterflies,  which  alight  upon  the 
drooping  petals,  and  thrusting  their  long  tongues 
through  narrow  openings  between  the  lobes  of  the 
perianth,  rifle  the  blossom  of  its  sweets,  without 
bestowing  or  receiving  any  pollen. 

As  the  blue-flag  grows  in  moist  places,  and  conse- 
quently secretes  an  abundant  supply  of  nectar,  this 
robbery  is  not  so  serious  a  matter  as  it  would  be  in 
the  case  of  some  other  flowers. 


The  Blazing-Star 

AND 

Other  Lilies 


We  have  seen  how  in  some 
flowers  self-fertiHzation  is  pre- 
vented by  the  stigmas  and  an-    ^ 
thers  maturing  at  different  pe- 
riods, as  in  the  tigwort  and  arum  ; 
in  others,  as  in  the  iris,  millvweed, 
and    many   compositae,    by    mere 
mechanical  means,  and  in  the  bluets  by  the  ^ 
production  of  two  forms  of  flowers. 

A  pretty  illustration  of  the  method  which 
places  the  stigmatic  flowers  in  dift'erent  blossoms 
from  the  pollen-producing  stamens  (the  method 
which  J ack-in-t he-pulpit  is  endeavoring  to  per- 
fect) is  to  be  seen  in  the  little  wild  flower  known 
as  the  devil's-bit,  Chamcclirium  httciun,  a  true  lily. 
119 


blossom  Hosts  Jiui  Insect  Guests 

Its  long,  white,  tapering  spire  of  feathery  bloom 
may  often  be  seen  rising  above  the  sedges  in  the 
swamp.  Two  years  ago  I  chanced  upon  a  little 
colony  of  four  or  five  plants  at  the  edge  of  a  bog. 
The  flowers,  all  of  them,  were  mere  petals  and 
stamens  (like  B  of  the  figure).  I  looked  in  vain 
for  a  single  stigmatic  plant  or  flower  ;  but  far  across 
the  swamp,  a  thousand  feet  distant,  I  at  length  dis- 
covered a  single  spire,  composed  entirely  of  pistillate 


flowers,  as  shown  at  A,  and  my  magnifving-glass 
clearly  revealed  the  pollen  upon  their  stigmas — 
doubtless  a  welcome  messao^e  brouo^-ht  from  the 
isolated  affinity  afar  by  some  winged  sponsor,  to 
whom  the  peculiar  fragrance  of  the  flower  offers  a 
special  attraction,  and  thus  to  whom  the  fortunes  of 
the  devil's-bit  have  been  committed. 

THE  CANADA  LILY  AND  ITS  COUSINS 

The    gorgeous    Canada    lily,  Liliitin    Canadcnsc, 
flaunts    its    spotted    yellow  petals   in  the    hope    of 


The  CaiudJ  LiJr  JiiJ  Its  Co//siiis 


\^^' 


Vwl  iJi'^^ 


^ 


.,\ 


/  '\l 


bewitching  the  leaf-cutter  (or  uphol- 
sterer) bees,  on  which  it  depends  for 
fertilization.      »  j 

This  lily  produces  pollen  as  well  as 
nectar  to  attract  its  insect  visitors,  its 
])ollen  supply  greatly  exceeding  what 
^^  is  necessary  for  its  own 

perpetuation.    This  pol- 
len   serves    the    uphol- 
sterer bee  as  food  for  its 
young.     The  leaf-cutter 
stores    the    pollen    be- 
tw^een  the  long  hairs  on 
its  breast — a  different  meth- 
od   from    that   usually   fol- 
owed,  most  bees  storing  pollen 
in  little  baskets,    developed,    for 
that  purpose,  on  their  hind  legs. 
The  lily  pictured  in  the  accom- 
panying   illustration    is    not    the 
identical    lily    here    described,    but    a 
closely  allied  species  often  confounded 
with    the    Canada    lily  — namely,   the 
lily,     Liliiim     PJiiladclphicmn.       The 
Canada   species  bows  its  head  and  dwells 
onlv  in   moist    places,   while    the    fire    lily 
stands  erect  and  can  live  in  very  dry  soil. 


ire 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

In  strong  contrast  to  the  gay,  pollen-loaded 
Canada  lily  is  the  pure  white,  sweetly  scented  Ber- 
muda or  Easter  lily,  Liliinn  Harrisi.  Lubbock 
says,  "There  is  not  a  hair  or  a  hne,  not  a. spot  or  a 
color,  for  which  there  is  not  a  reason — which  has 
not  a  purpose  or  a  meaning  in  the  economy  of 
Nature."  If  this  be  true,  what  do  the  variations  in 
these  near  cousins  signify  ? 

The  answer  to  our  question  is  not  far  to  seek. 
The  Canada  lily  desires  the  services  of  an  insect 
that  flies  by  day  and  that  is  a  pollen-gatherer  rather 
than  a  nectar-lover.  Its  vivid  yellow  tints  are, 
therefore,  all  sufficient,  making  the  flower  most  con- 
spicuous and  suggesting  the  character  of  the  reward 
which  it  will  bestow  upon  its  guests  in  return  for 
their  courteous  attendance. 

The  Bermuda  lily,  on  the  contrary,  wishes  to 
avail  itself  of  the  kind  offices  of  a  moth  which  flies 
only  during  the  twilight  hours  and  which  is  a  honey- 
tippler,  caring  nothing  for  pollen,  since  its  eggs  are 
deposited  on  the  plants  that  feed  its  young.  This 
lily,  therefore,  dons  a  white  robe,  which  is  more 
easily  distinguished  at  dusk  than  any  color,  and  as  a 
further  guide  to  its  whereabouts  and  a  hint  of  the 
sweets  which  it  has  to  offer,  it  has  acquired  an  ex- 
traordinary perfume. 


The  T>og-Tooth  Violet 


THE  DOG-TOOTH  VIOLET 

The  dainty  little  trout  lilies,  better  known  as 
"  dog-tooth  violets,"  or  ''  yellow  adder's  tongues," 
are  among  the  first  spring  blossoms,  blooming 
before  the  foliage  is  dense  enough  to  shut  out  their 
beloved  sunlight,  which  they  are  always  turning  on 
their  stalks  to  follow.  At  night  they  fold  their 
petals  and  sleep  to  avoid  the  darkness. 

The  drooping  position  of  the  bells  compels  the 
small  butterflies  and  bees  that  befriend  these  violets 
to  cling  so  closely  to  the  style  and  stamens  to  avoid 
falling,  while  they  sip  their  nectar,  that  they  cannot 
fail  both  to  receive  and  bestow  pollen.  It  serves 
another  purpose  also,  protecting  the  flowers  from 
thievish  ants,  who  are  always  thirsty  for  honey,  but 
incapable  of  making  the  blossoms  any  return  for 
their  sweets.  Even  though  they  succeed  in  ascend- 
ing the  slippery  stalk,  they  are  sure  to  get  a  tumble 
when  they  try  to  round  the  curve  to  reach  the 
flower  itself. 

Thus  all  the  wonderful  and  fascinating  attributes 
of  the  Lily  family  have  been  evolved,  not  merely  to 
add  to  their  beauty,  but  in  obedience  to  the  same 
law  of  co-operation  that  governs  the  rest  of  the 
plant  world.  As  Henry  Drummond  says:  ''The 
loveliness,  the  variegations  of  shade  and  tint,  the 

123 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

ornamentations,  the  scents,  the  shapes,  the  sizes  of 
flowers,  are  all  the  gifts  of  co-operation.  The  flower 
in  every  detail  is  a  monument  to  the  co-operative 
principle." 


®*^ 


^^^:[^\ 


"\ 


^H 


124 


V      ^ 


Orchid  Blossoms  and 

How  They   Differ 
From  Other  Flowers 

The  highest  types  of  cross-fertilized  flowers 
are  found  in  this  family,  wdiich,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions, has  utterly  lost,  like  the  milkweed  and 
clover,  the  power  of  self-fertilization.  What  start- 
ling disclosures  are  revealed  to  the  inward  eye  within 
the  hearts  of  all  these  strange  orchidaceous  flowers  ! 
Blossoms  whose  functions,  through  long  eras  of 
adaptation,  have  gradually  shaped  themselves  to  the 
forms  of  certain  chosen  insect  sponsors  ;  blossoms 
whose  chalices  are  literally  fashioned  to  bees  or  but- 
terflies ;  blossoms  whose  slender,  prolonged  nectaries 
mvite  and  reward  the  murmuring  sphinx-moth  alone, 
the  floral  throat  closely  embracing  his  head  while  it 

125 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


attaches  its  pollen  masses  to  the  bulging  eyes,  or 
perchance  to  the  capillary  tongue  !  And  thus  in 
endless  modifications,  evidences  all  of  the  same 
deep  vital  purpose. 

And  what  is  an  orchid?     How  are  we  to  know 


,s/ijni* 


that  this  blossom  which 


;3^7'H^ 


cifrto; 


Fig. 


we  plucked  is  an  orchid  ? 
The  average  reader  will 
exclaim,  "  Because  it  is  an 
air-plant  " — the  essential 
requisite,  it  would  seem, 
in  the  popular  mind.  Of 
over  3,000  known  species 
of  orchids,  it  is  true  a 
great  majority  are  air-plants,  or  epiphytes — growing 
upon  trees  and  other  plants,  obtaining  their  sus- 
tenance from  the  air,  and  not  truly  parasitic  ;  but 
of  the  fifty-odd  species  of  the  northeastern  United 
States,  not  one  is  of  this  character,  all  growing  in 
the  ground,  like  other  plants.  It  is  only  by  the 
botanical  structure  of  the  flowers  that  the  orchid 
may  be  distinguished,  the  epiphytic  character  being 
of  little  significance  botanically. 

A  brief  glance  at  this  structural  peculiarity  may 
properly  precede  our  more  elaborate  consideration 
of  a  few  species  of  these  remarkable  flowers. 


26 


Orchid  blossoms 


The  orchids  are  usually  very  irregular,  and  six- 
parted.  The  ovary  is  one-celled,  and  becomes  a 
pod  containing  an  enormous  yield  of  minute,  spore- 
like seeds  (Fig.  3)  in  some  species,  as  in  the  vanilla 
pod,  to  the  number  of  a  million,  and  in  one  species 
of  the  maxillaria,  it  has  been  computed,  1,750,000. 

The  pollen,  unlike  ordinary  flowers,  is  gathered 
together  in  waxy  masses  of  varying  consistency, 
variously  formed  and  disposed  in  the  blossom,  its 


Fig.  2. 

grains  being  connected  with  elastic  cobwebby 
threads,  which  occasionally  permit  the  entire  mass 
to  be  stretched  to  four  or  five  times  its  length, 
and  recover  its  original  shape  when  released.  This 
is  specially  noticeable  in  the  showy  orchid,  later 
described.  The  grains  thus  united  are  readily  dis- 
entangled from  their  mass  when  brought  into  con- 
tact with  a  viscid  object,  as  the  stigma. 

But  the  most  significant  botanical  contrast  and 
distinction  is  found  in  the  union  of  the  style  and 

127 


Tilossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


stamens  in  one  organ,  called  the  column  (Fig.  2), 
the    stigma    and    the    pollen    being   thus   disposed 

upon  a  single  common 
stalk.  The  contrast  to 
the  ordinary  flower  will 
be  readily  appreciated 
by  a  comparison  of  the 
diagrams  of  Fig.  i. 

When,  therefore,  we 
find  a  blossom  with  the 
anthers  or  pollen  recep- 
tacle united  to  a  stalk 
upon  which  the  stigma  is 
also  placed,  we  have  an 
Fig.  3.  orchid. 


128 


^' 


:    ■ 

li.  The  Showy  Orchid 


\ 


'\ 


'    ;  A  GROUP  of  the  beautiful  showy 

^r  '       orchids    is    shown  in  my  full-page 

'%  ,     S'-J^  /        illustration.     A  favorite  haunt  for 
C      '       /      these    choice    blossoms    is    the    dark, 
/       damp,  hemlock  woods.     Against  this 
background   their    deep    pink    hoods 
and   pure  white   lips  stand  out  most 
conspicuously,     justifying    fully     the 
flower's  specific  name  of  "  spectabilis." 
In  the  showy  orchid  we  have  what 
would    appear  a  clear  adaptation    to 
^_    the  head  of  a  bee,  though  one  w^hich 
mieht  also  avail  of  the  service  of  an 
occasional  butterfly.     An  enlarged 
view    of    the    blossom    is    seen    in 
Fig.  I,  and  in  Fig.  2  a  still  greater 
"   enlargement  of  the  column. 

I  have  seen  many  specimens  with 
the  pollen  masses  withdrawn,  and 
others  with  their  stigmas  well  cov- 
ered wnth  the  grains.  Though  I  have 
never  seen  an  insect  at  work  upon  it 
in  its  haunt,  the  whole  form  of  the 
129 


"Blossom  Hosts  j/ui  Insect  Guests 


pclkn  JMacK 


Fig. 


opening  of  the  flower  would  seem  to  imply  a  bee, 
particularly  a  bumblebee.  If  we  insert  the  point 
of  a  lead-pencil  into  this  opening,  thus  imitating 
the  entrance  of  a  bee,  its  bevelled  surface  comes 
in  contact  with  the  viscid  disks  by  the  rupture 
of  a  veil  of  membrane,  which  has  hitherto  pro- 
tected them.  The  disks  adhere  to  the  pencil,  and 
are  withdrawn  upon  it  (Fig.  3).  At  first  in  upright 
position,    as    at    A,    they   soon    assume    a    forward 


JM. 


131 


'Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


t^^^^-ii^i&^^^m:^:.^^. 


Fig.  3. 


inclination,  as  shown  at  B.  The  nectary  is  about  the 
length  of  a  bumblebee's  tongue,  and  is,  moreover, 
so  amply  expanded  at  the  throat  below  the  stigma 
as  to  comfortably  admit  its  wedge-shaped  head. 
The  three  progressive  diagrams  (Fig.  4)  indicate 
the  result  in  the  event  of  such  a  visit. 

The  pollen  disks  are  here  very  close  together,  and 
are  protected  within  a  membranous  cup,  in  which 
they  sit  as  in  a  socket.  As  the  insect  inserts  his 
head  at  the  opening  (A),  it  is  brought  against  this 


OVdry -^ 


pollen-pouch 
or  anther-cell 
'//  pollen  mass 


The  Showv  Orchid 


tender  membrane,  which  ruptures  and  exposes  the 
viscid  glands  of  the  pollen  masses,  which  become 
instantly  attached  to  the  face  or  head,  perhaps  the 
eyes,  of  the  burly  visitor.  As  the  insect  retreats 
from  the  flower,  one  or  both  of  the  pollinia  are 
withdrawn,  as  at  B.  Then  immediately  follows  a 
downward  movement,  which  exactly  anticipates  the 
position  of  the  stigma, 
and  as  the  bee  enters  the 
next  flower  the  pollen 
clubs  are  forced  against 
it  (C). 

In  the  case  of  a  smaller 
bee  visitinofthe  flower,  the 
insect  would  find  it  nec- 
essary to  creep  farther 
into  the  opening,  and  thus 
might  bring  its  thorax  against  the  pollen-glands. 
In  either  case  the  change  of  position  in  the  pollinia 
would  insure  the  same  result. 

The  entrance  to  the  showy  orchid's  nectary  is  so 
formed  as  to  insure  the  approach  of  the  insect  from 
the  front — the  only  way  in  which  the  desired  result 
can  be  accomplished.  This  direct  approach,  so 
necessary  in  many  orchids,  is  insured  by  various 
devices — by  the  position  of  the  lip  upon  which  the 

133 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

insect  must  alight ;  by  the  narrowed  entrance  of  the 
throat  of  the  flower  in  front  of  the  nectary  ;  by  a 
fissure  in  the  centre  of  the  Hp,  by  which  the  tongue 
is  conducted,  etc. 

In  other  species  aUied  to  the  above  we  find 
adaptations  to  the  thorax,  the  eyes,  and  the  face  of 
the  intended  visitor  ;  and  there  is  still  another  group 
whose  structure  is  distinctly  adjusted  to  the  tongues 
of  insects — adaptations  not  merely  of  position  of 
pollen  masses,  but  even  to  the  extent  of  a  special 
modification  in  the  entrance  to  the  flower  and  the 
shape  of  the  sticky  gland,  by  which  it  may  more 
securely  adhere  to  that  sipping  member. 


34 


The  Purple-Fringed 

AND    THE 

Ragged  Orchid 

In     the     common     pretty 
purple  -  fringed     orchid,      H. 
psy codes,  whose   dense   cylin- 
drical   spikes  of  plumy  blos- 
^^r^-   soms    occasionally    em- 
purple whole    marshes,    the 
pollen   is   tucked   away   in  two 
parallel  pouches,  one  on  either 
id^^F-^        side  of  the  stigma  (Fig.  i).      In 

^  i'^^^  *  "^  ^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  ^y^"^  ^^  sipping 
butterflies  occasionally  get  their 
decoration  of  a  tiny  golden  pollen 
club,  but  more  frequently  their 
tongues. 
If,  in  visiting  the  purple-fringed  orchid, 
the  butterfly  should  approach  directly  in 
front  of  the  flower,  as  the  bee  does  in  the 
showy  '  orchid,  he  might  sip  the  nectar 
indefinitely  and  withdraw  his  tongue  with- 
out bringing  it  in  contact  with  the  viscid  pollen 
disks.      But  in  the  dense  crowding  of  the  flowers, 

135 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


over  which  the  insect  flutters  indiscriminately,  the 
approach  is  oftenest  made  obHquely,  and  thus  the 
tongue  brushes  the  disk  on  the  side  approached,  and 
the  pollen  mass  is  withdrawn.      But  an  examination 

of  this  orchid  affords  no 
pronounced  evidence  of  any 
specific  intention.  There  is 
no  unmistakable  sign  to  de- 
monstrate which  approach 
is  preferred  by  the  flower, 
and  this  dependence  on  the 
insect's  tongue  or  eye  would 
seem  to  be  left  to  chance. 
In  another  kindred  species,  however,  we  have  a 
distinct  provision  which  insures  the  proper  approach 
of  the  tongue — one  of  many  similar  devices  by 
which  the  tongue  is  conducted  directly  to  one  or 
other  of  the  pollen  disks. 

THE  RAGGED  ORCHID 

This  is  the  ragged  orchid,  H.  lac  era,  a  blos- 
som far  less  fortunate  in  its  attributes  of  beauty  than 
the  foregoing  member  of  the  family  ;  its  long,  scat- 
tered spike  of  greenish  white  flowers  being  so  in- 
conspicuous in  its  grassy  haunt  as  often  to  conceal 
the  fact  of  its  frequency.  The  initial  illustra- 
tion represents  a  group  of  these  blossoms  and  an 

136 


The  Turple-Fringed  and  the  Ragged  Orchid 


r- 

entrance  fo  I 
nectary,  side  | 
aperture  of 
opening  divid 
ed  by  palate 


oHen  poucK 

sfigmca. 
^/viscid  pollen - 
^^  gland  guard- 
ing opening 


individual  flower  is  shown  enlarged  at  Fig.  2,  the  lip 
here  cut  with  a  lacerated  fringe.  The  pollen-pouches 
approach  slightly  at  the  base,  directly  opposite  the 
nectary,  where  the  two  viscid  pollen-glands  stand 
on  guard.  Now,  were  the  opening  of  the  necta- 
ry at  this  point  unimpeded,  the  same  condition 
would  exist  as  in  the  i)ur- 
ple- fringed  orchid  —  the 
tongue  might  be  inserted 
between  the  pollen  disks 
and  withdrawn  without 
touching  them.  But  here 
comes  the  remarkable  and 
very  exceptional  provision 
to  make  this  contact  a  cer- 
tainty— a  suggestive  struc- 
tural feature  of  this  flower, 
of  which  I  am  surprised  to 
find  no  mention,  either  in  our  botanies  or  in  the 
literature  of  cross-fertilization,  so  far  as  I  am  familiar 
with  its  bibliography.  The  nectary  here,  instead  of 
being  freely  open,  as  in  other  orchids  described,  is 
abruptly  closed  at  the  central  portion  by  a  firm 
l^rotuberance  or  palate,  which  projects  downward 
from  the  base  of  the  stigma,  and  closely  meets  the 
lip  below. 

137 


Fig.  2. 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


The  throat  of  the  nectary,  thus  centrally  divided, 
presents  two  small  lateral  openings,  each  of  which, 
from  the  line  of  approach  through  the  much-nar- 
rowed entrance  of  the  flowers,  is  thus  broug^ht 
directly  beneath  the  waiting  disk  upon  the  same 
side.     The  structure  is  easily  understood  from  the 

two  diagrams.  Figs.  2  and  3, 
both  of  which  are  indexed. 
The  viscid  pollen-gland  is 
here  very  peculiarly  formed, 
elongated    and    pointed    at 
each    end,    and    it    is    not 
until  we  witness  the  act  of 
its  removal  on  the  tongue 
of  the  butterfly  that  we  can 
fully  appreciate    its  signifi- 
cance. 
I   have  often  seen  butterflies  at  work  upon  this 
orchid,  and  have  observed  their  tongues  generously 
decorated   with    the    glands    and   remnants  of    the 
pollen  masses. 

The  series  of  diagrams  (Fig.  4)  will,  I  think, 
fully  demonstrate  how  this  blossom  utilizes  the 
butterfly.  At  A  we  see  the  insect  sipping,  its 
tongue  now  in  contact  with  the  elongated  disk, 
which  adheres  to  and  clasps  it.     The  withdrawal  of 

138 


Fig. 


The  Turple-Fringed  and  the  Ragged  Orchid 


the  tongue  (B)  removes  the  pollen  from  its  pouch. 
At  C  it  is  seen  entirely  free  and  upright,  from  which 
position  it  quickly  assumes  the  new  attitude  shown 
at  D.  As  the  tongue  is  now  inserted  into  the  sub- 
sequent blossom,  this  pollen  mass  is  thrust  against 
the  stigma  (E),  and  a  few  of  the   pollen  grains  are 


Fig. 


thus  withheld  upon  its  viscid  surface  as  the  insect 
departs  (F). 

Another  similar  device  for  assuring  the  necessary 
side  approach  is  seen  in  the  tubercled  or  small 
pale  green  orchis,  H.  flava  (Fig.  5),  a  yellowish 
spiked  species,  more  or  less  common  in  swamps  and 
rich  alluvial  haunts. 

139 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


Fig.  5. 


In  the  small  pale  green  species  this  "tubercle," 
instead  of  depending  from  the  throat,  grows  ?//- 
ward  from  the  lip. 


V^-::.\ 


140 


The  Great 
Green    Orchis   and   r  ^ 
THE  Rattlesnake 
Plantain 

In  the  Hahcnaria 
orbiciLlaia,  or  large 
round -leafed  orchid, 
sometimes  called  the  great  green  orchis,  we  have 
a  remarkable  example  of  a  form  of  floral  construc- 
tion which  insures  the  transfer  of  the  pollen  on  the 
eyes  of  the  visiting  insect.  The  structure  and 
mechanism  of  this  flower  have  been  admirably 
described  by  Asa  Gray. 

All  orchid-hunters  know  this  most  exceptional 
example  of  our  local  flora,  and  the  thrill  of  delight 
experienced  when   one   first  encounters    it   in    the 

141 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


mountain  wilderness,  its  typical  haunt,  is  an  event 
to  date  from — its  two  great,  glistening,  fluted  leaves, 
sometimes  as  large  as  a  dinner-plate,  spreading  flat 
upon   the  mould,   and  surmounted   by   the  slender 

leafless  stalk,  with  its  termi- 
nal loose  raceme  of  greenish- 
white  bloom. 

A  single  blossom  of  the 
species  is  shown  in  Fig.  i,  the 
parts  indexed.  The  opening 
to  the  nectary  is  seen  just  be- 
low the  stigmatic  surface,  the 
nectary  itself  being  nearly  two 
inches  in  length.  The  pollen 
is  in  two  club-like  bodies,  each 
hidden  within  a  fissured  pouch 
on  either  side  of  the  stigma, 
and  coming  to  the  surface  at 
the  base  in  their  opposing 
sticky  disks  as  shown.  Many 
of  the  group  Habenaria  or 
Platanthera,  to  which  this  flower  belongs,  are  sim- 
ilarly planned.  But  mark  the  peculiarly  logical  as- 
sociation of  the  parts  here  exhibited.  The  nectary 
implies  a  welcome  to  a  tongue  two  inches  long,  and 
will  reward  none  other.     This  clearly  shuts  out  the 

142 


S,  Stigma. 
L,  Lip. 
P,  Pollen- 
pouch. 
N,  Opening 
to  nectary 
T,  Nectary 

t  ube. 
G,  Gland. 


Fig. 


The  GreJt  Green  Orchis 


bees,  butterflies,  and  smaller  moths.  What  insect, 
then,  is  here  implied  ?  The  sphinx-moth  again,  one 
of  the  lesser  of  the  group.  A  larger  individual  might 
sip  the  nectar,  it  is  true,  but  its  longer  tongue  would 
reach  the  base  of  the  tube  without  effecting  the 
slightest  contact  with  the  pollen,  which  is  of  course 
the  desideratum  here  embodied,  and  which  has  ref- 
erence to  a  tongue  corresponding  to  the  length  of 
the  nectary.  There  are  many  of  these  smaller 
sphmxes.  Let  us  suppose  one  to  be  hovering  at 
the  blossom's  throat.  Its  slender  capillary  tongue 
enters  the  opening.  Ere  it  can  reach  the  sweets,  the 
insect's  head  must  be  forced  well  into  the  throat  of 
the  blossom,  where  we  now  observe  a  most  remark- 
able special  provision,  the  space  between  the  two 
pollen  disks  being  exactly  adjusted  to  the  diameter 
of  the  insect's  head. 

What  follows  this  entrance  of  the  moth  is  plainly 
pictured  in  the  progressive  series  of  illustrations 
(Fig.  2).  A  represents  the  insect  sipping;  the 
sticky  disks  are  brought  in  contact  with  the  moth's 
eyes,  to  which  they  adhere,  and  by  which  they  are 
withdrawn  from  their  pouches  as  the  moth  departs 
(B).  At  this  time  they  are  in  the  upright  posi- 
tion shown  at  C,  but  in  a  few  seconds  bend  de- 
terminedly   downward     and    slightly    toward    each 

143 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Iiisect  Guests 


'T^n.iir 


^;r 


other  to  the  position  D.     This  change  takes  place 
as  the  moth  is  flitting  from  flower  to  flower.     At  E 

we  see  the  moth  with 
its  tongue  entering  the 
nectary  of  a  subsequent 
blossom.  By  the  new 
position  of  the  pollen 
clubs,  they  are  now 
forced  directly  ao^ainst 
'  the    stigma    (E).      This 

^^^^'^^^^^^^  surface  is  viscid,  and  as 
the  insect  leaves 
the  blossom  re- 
tains the  grains 
in  contact  (F), 
which  in  turn 
withdraw  others  from 
the  mass  by  means  of 
the  cobwebby  threads 
by  which  the  pollen 
grains  are  continu- 
ously attached.  At  G 
we  see  the  orchid  after 
the  moth's  visit — the 
stigma  covered  with  pollen,  and  the  flower  thus 
cross-fertilized. 

144 


Fig. 


The  Rjttlcsnake-TUmtain 


In  effecting  the  cross-fertilization  of  one  of  the 
younger  flowers,  its  eyes  are  again  brought  into  con- 
tact with  this  second  pair  of  disks,  and  these,  with 
their  pollen  clubs,  are  in  turn  withdrawn,  at  length, 
perhaps,  resulting  in  such  a  plastering  of  the  insect's 
eyes  as  might  seriously  impair  its  vision,  were  it  not 
fortunately  of  the  compound  sort. 


pollen 

masses     hmge^^^f,^^ 


fold  of  sensi- 
/tive  membrane 


Fig.  3. 
THE  RATTLESNAKE-PLANTAIN 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  our  orchids,  though 
its  claims  to  admiration  in  this  instance  are  chiefly 
confined  to  the  foliage,  is  the  common  rattlesnake- 

145 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


plantain,  Goody ei^a,  its  prostrate  rosettes  of  exqui- 
sitely white  reticulated  leaves  carpeting  many  a  nook 
in  the  shadows  of  the  hemlocks,  its  dense  spikes  of 
yellowish-white  blossoms  signalling  their  welcome  to 
the  bees,  and  fully  compensating  in  interest  what 
they  may  lack  in  other  attractive  attributes. 


anther-lid 


membrane 

c 


Fig.  4. 

The  single  flower  is  shown  enlarged  in  Fig.  3, 
A,  a  young  blossom,  with  analyses  B  and  C,  the 
latter  indexed  ;  D,  an  older  blossom,  with  similar 
analyses  E  and  F.  Both  sorts  are  to  be  found 
upon  every  spike  of  bloom,  as  the  inflorescence  be- 
gins at  the  base  and  proceeds  upward.     As  we  look 

146 


The  Rattlesnake-Tlantain 


into  the  more  open  flower,  we  observe  a  dark-col- 
ored speck,  which,  by  analysis,  proves  to  be  the  lid 
of  the  anther.  This  portion  is  further  shown  en- 
larged in  Fig.  4,  A.  If  we  gently  lift  it  with  a 
pin,  we  disclose  the  pollen  masses  in  the  cavity  B 


Fig.  5. 

thus  opened  (C,  profile  section),  the  two  pairs  united 
to  a  common  viscid  gland  at  the  base,  this  gland 
again  secreted  behind  a  veil  of  moist  membrane,  as 
also  shown  at  B.  This  membrane  is,  moreover,  very 
sensitive  to  the  touch.      Below  the  flattened  tip  of 

147 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

the  column,  and  at  a  sharp  inward  angle,  is  the 
stigma.  In  the  freshly  opened  flower  (Fig.  3,  A) 
the  column  inclines  forward,  bringing  the  anther  low 
down,  and  its  base  directly  opposite  the  V-shaped 
orifice  in  the  lip,  which  also  is  quite  firmly  closed 
beneath  the  equally  converging  upper  hood  of  the 
blossom.     The  entrance  is  thus  much  narrowed.     If 

we  insert  a  pin  in 
this  V-shaped  en- 
trance, it  comes 
in  contact  w^ith 
the  sensitive  mem- 
brane below  the 
anther,  and  it  is 
immediately  rup- 
tured, as  shown  at  Fig.  4,  D.  The  sticky  gland  is 
brought  into  immediate  contact,  and  clasps  the  pin, 
which,  now  being  withdrawn,  brings  away  the  pollen, 
as  in  E  and  F.  Thus  it  is  naturally  removed  on  the 
tongue  of  its  sipping  bee. 

The  further  demonstration  will  be  better  shown 
by  profile  sections  (Fig.  5).  Nectar  is  secreted  in 
the  hollow  of  the  lip  indicated,  somewhat  as  in  the 
cypripedium.  If  we  now  imitate  with  a  probe  the  habit 
of  the  insect  and  the  action  of  its  tongue,  we  may 
witness  a  beautiful  contrivance  for  cross-fertilization. 

148 

PROPERTVOF 

A.  AM.  COLLEGE  library; 


J 


49 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

We  will  suppose  the  bee  to  be  working  at  the  top 
of  the  spike.  He  thrusts  his  tongue  into  the  nar- 
row opening  (G).  The  membrane  protecting  the 
pollen-gland,  thus  surely  touched,  ruptures  as  de- 
scribed, and  the  exposed  gland  attaches  itself  to  the 
tongue,  being  withdrawn  as  at  H,  and  located  on 
the  insect's  tongue,  as  in  F,  Fig.  4.  The  bee  leaves 
this  flower  cluster  and  flies  to  another,  upon  which 
it  will  usually  begin  at  the  bottom.  The  flower 
thus  first  encountered  is  an  old  bloom,  as  in 
Fig.  3,  D.  Its  sepals  are  more  spreading,  the  lip 
slightly  lowered,  and  the  column  so  changed  as  to 
present  the  plane  of  the  stigma  in  such  a  new  posi- 
tion as  to  invariably  receive  the  pollen.  The  tongue 
of  a  bee  entering  this  flower  conveys  the  pollen 
directly  against  the  stigmatic  surface  (I),  which  re- 
tains its  disentangled  fecundating  grains,  as  at  J, 
and  the  flower's  functional  adaptations  are  fulfilled. 
In  the  allied  spiranthes,  or  lady's-tresses,  a  some- 
what similar  mechanism  prevails. 


150 


Arethusa  and  Pogonia 

The  orchid  belle  of  our  swamps, 
so  fitly  named  for  the  water  nymph 
of  the  ancients,  Arethusa,  A.  bid- 
bosa,  presents  one  of  the  most 
:#/^  interesting  problems  in  fertil- 

ization furnished  by  our  wild  orchids. 
I  have  indicated  a  group  of  the  or- 
chids  in    their   usual    marshy  haunt, 
and  in  Fig.  i,  separately,  a  series  of 
diagrams    presents     sec- 
tions of  the  flower,  natu- 
ral size  and  duly  indexed. 
The  column  is  here  quite 
elongated,  forked  at  the  tip, 
the  space  between  the  forks 
occupied  by  the  anther,  which 
is  hinged  to  the  upper  division. 
This  anther  lid  is  closed  tightly, 
with  the    sticky  mass    of    pollen 
hidden   behind   it    in   the   cavity. 
The  stigma  is  on  the  external  inner 
side  of  the  lower  division,  and  thus 
151 


TSlossoni  Hosts  j/ui  Insect  Guests 

distinctly  separated  from  the  pollen.  The  "  lip  "  is 
extended  forward  as  a  hospitable  threshold  to  the 
insect.  And  to  what  insect  might  we  assume  this 
invitation  of  color,  fragrance,  nectar,  and  threshold 
to  be  extended  ? 

Let  us  consider  the  flower  simply  as  a  device  to 
insure  its  own  cross-fertilization.  The  insect  is 
welcomed  ;  it  must  alight  and  sip  the  nectar  ;  in 
departing  it  must  bear  away  this  pollen  upon  its 
body,  and  convey  it  to  the  next  Arethusa  blossom 
wdiich  it  visits,  and  leave  it  upon  its  stigma.  The 
nectar  is  here  secreted  in  a  well — not  very  deep 
— and  the  depth  of  this  nectar  from  the  entrance 
is  of  great  significance  among  all  the  flowers, 
having  distinct  reference  to  the  length  of  the 
tongue  which  is  expected  to  sip  it.  In  the  Are- 
thusa, it  is  true,  the  butterfly  or  moth  might  sip 
at  the  throat  of  the  flower,  but  the  long  tongues 
of  these  insects  might  permit  the  nectary  to  be 
drained  without    brinorinor    their  bodies   in  contact 

o       o 

with  the  stigma.  Smaller  insects  might  creep  into 
the  nectary  and  sip  without  the  intended  fulfil- 
ment. It  is  clear  that  to  neither  of  such  vis- 
itors is  the  welcome  extended.  What,  then,  are 
the  conditions  embodied  ?  The  insect  must  have  a 
tongue  of   such  a  length  that,  when   in   the   act   of 

152 


'// 


/\>\ 


^"    T^ 


^A'!S^' 


53 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

sipping,  its  head  must  pass  beyond  the  anther  well 
into  the  opening  of  the  flower.  Its  body  must  be  i 
sufficiently  large  to  come  in  contact  with  the  anther. 
Such  requisites  are  perfectly  fulfilled  by  the  bum- 
blebee, and  we  may  well  hazard  the  prophecy 
that  the  Bombus  is  the  welcomed  affinity  of  the 
flower. 

The  diagrams  (Fig.  i)  sufficiently  illustrate  the 


Fig. 


efficacy  of  the  beautiful  plan  involved.  At  A  the 
bee  is  seen  sipping  the  nectar.  His  forward  move- 
ment thus  far  to  this  point  has  only  seemed  to 
press  the  edge  of  the  anther  inward,  and  thus  keep 
it  even  more  effectually  closed.  As  the  bee  retires 
(B),  the  backward  motion  opens  the  lid,  and  the 
sticky  pollen  is  thus  brought  against  the  insect's 
back,  where  it  adheres  in  a  solid  mass.  He  now  flies 
to  the  next  Arethusa  blossom,  enters  it  as  before,  and 


154 


<^rethusa  and  Togonia 


in  retiring  slides  his  back  against  the  receptive 
viscid  stigma,  which  retains  a  portion  of  the  pollen, 
and  thus  effects  the  cross-fertilization  (C).  Pro- 
fessor Gray  surmised  that  the  pollen  was  withdrawn 
on  the  insect's  head,  and  it  might  be  so  withdrawn, 
but  in  other  allied  orchids 
of  the  tribe  Arethusa,  how- 
ever, in  which  the  struc- 
ture is  very  similar,  the 
pollen  is  deposited  on  the 
thorax,  and  such  is  prob- 
ably the  fact  in  this  species. 
In  either  case,  cross-fertil- 
ization would  be  effected. 
Nothing  else  is  possible, 
and  whether  it  is  Bombus  or  not  that  effects  it,  the 
method    is    sufficiently    evident. 

The  sweet-pogonia,  or  grass-pink  of  our  sedgy 
swamps  {Pogonia  opJiioglossoidcs),  a  solitary  rosy 
blossom,  nodding  on  its  slender  stem  above  the 
grasses,  is  no  less  welcome  an  episode  to  the  saun- 
tering botanist  than  its  cousin  Arethusa.  Its  per- 
fume, suggesting  ripe  red  raspberries,  is  unique  in 
the  wild  bouquet. 

The  bee  as  well  as  the  botanist  recognizes 
these  flowers  as  closely  akin,  and  visits  the  pogonia 

155 


'Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


with   as    much    pleasure    and    profit    as    the    Are- 
thusa. 

A  profile  view  of  the  pogonia  is  shown  in  Fig.  2, 
its    various  parts  indexed.      Concealed    behind  the 


petals  is  the  column  indicated  at  A,  Fig.  3.  E  and 
D,  Fig.  3,  illustrate  the  method  of  pollination, 
which  is  so  nearly  identical  with  that  of  Arethusa 
that  further  analysis  seems  superfluous. 


The  Moccasin-Flower 

Of  all  our  native  orchids, 
at   least    in    the    northeast- 
ern     United     States,     the 
cvpripedium,  or  moccasin- 
ilower,      is      perhaps      the 
>   general   favorite,    and    cer- 
tainly    the     most     widely 
known.      This    is    readily 
"^  accounted     for    not     only 
by    its   frequency,    but    by 
its  conspicuousness.     The  term 
''moccasin-flower"     is     applied 
J      more    or    less    indiscriminately 
to    all    species.     The   flow^er    is    also 
known    as    the    lady's-slipper,    more 
specifically  Venus's-slipper,  as  w^arranted 
by  its  generic    botanical    title,    from   a 
fancied  resemblance  in  the  form  of  the  inflated   lip, 
which  is  characteristic  of  the  genus.     We  may  readily 
infer  that  the  fair  goddess  was  not  consulted  at  the 
christening.     There   are   six  native    species  of  the 
cypripedium    in    this    Eastern    region,    varymg    in 
shape    and    in    color  —  shades   of    white,    yellow, 

157 


'blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Gnests 


crimson,  and  pink.  The  mechanism  of  their  cross- 
fertilization  is  the  same  in  all,  with  only  slight  modi- 
fications. 

Our  initial  illustration  shows  the  whtie  species, 
but  the  most  common  of   the  group,  the  C.  acanlc, 

widely     known     as 
the  moccasin-flower, 

Profile  View  ,  ,  , 

of  Column.  whosc    large,     nod- 

ding, pale  crimson 
dniher  blooms  we  SO  irre- 
sistibly associate 
with  the  cool  hem- 
lock woods,  will  af- 
ford a  better  il- 
lustration of  the 
general    method   of 


dotfed  line  ind 
icafing  sfigmca 


fertilization      em- 


sl-fgma. 
tcclumn 
beneafh) 

Under  View  of  Column,   ploycd  by  the  tribe. 


Fig.  I. 


The  lip  in  all  the 
cypripediums  is  more  or  less  sac-like  and  inflated. 
In  the  present  species,  C.  acatclc,  however,  we  see 
a  unique  variation,  this  portion  of  the  flower 
being  conspicuously  bag-like,  and  cleft  by  a  fissure 
down  its  entire  anterior  face.  In  Fig.  i  is  shown  a 
front  view  of  the  blossom,  showing  this  fissure. 
The   ''column"   (B)   in    the    cypripedium    is    very 

158 


The  Moccasin-Flower 


distinctive,  and  from  the  front  view  is  very  non- 
committal. It  is  only  as  we  see  it  in  side  section, 
or  from  beneath,  that  we  fully  comprehend  the 
disposition  of  stigma  and  pollen.  Upon  the  stalk 
of  this  column  there  appear  from  the  front  three 
lobes — two  small  ones  at  the  sides,  each  of  which 
hides  an  anther  attached  to  its  under  face — the  large 
terminal  third  lobe  being,  in  truth,  a  barren  rudi- 
ment of  a  former  stamen,  and  which  now  over- 
arches the  stigma.  The  relative  position  of  these 
parts  may  be  seen  in  the  under  view. 

The  anthers  in  this  genus,  then,  are  two,  instead 
of  the  previous  single  anther  with  its  two  pollen- 
cells.  The  pollen  is  also  quite  different  in  its 
character,  being  here  in  the  form  of  a  pasty  mass, 
whose  entire  exposed  surface,  as  the  anther  opens, 
is  coated  with  a  very  viscid  gluten. 

With  the  several  figures  illustrating  the  cross- 
fertilization,  the  reader  will  readily  anticipate  any 
description  of  the  process,  and  only  a  brief  com- 
mentary will  be  required  in  my  text. 

I  have  repeatedly  examined  the  flowers  of 
C.  acaitlc  in  their  haunts,  have  observed  groups 
wherein  every  flower  still  retained  its  pollen,  others 
where  one  or  both  pollen  masses  had  been  with- 
drawn,  and   in   several    instances    associated    with 

159 


IBlossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

them  I  have  observed  the  inflated  lip  most  outrage- 
ously bruised,  torn,  and  battered,  and  occasionally 
perforated  by  a  large  hole.  I  had  observed  these 
facts  in  boyhood.  The  inference,  of  course,  was 
that  some  insect  had  been  guilty  of  the  mutilation  ; 
but   not   until    I   read   Darwin's   description  of  the 

cross-fertilization  of  this 
species  did  I  realize  the 
full  significance  of  these 
telltale  evidences  of  the 
escape  of  the  imprisoned 
insect.  Since  that  time, 
many  years  ago,  I  have 
often  sat  long  and  patiently 
in  the  haunt  of  the  cypri- 
pedium  awaiting  a  natural 
demonstration  of  its  cross- 
^^°"  ^*  fertilization,     but     as    yet 

no  insect  has  rewarded  my  devotion. 

At  length,  in  hopelessness  of  reward  by  such 
means,  I  determined  to  see  the  process  by  more 
prosaic  methods.  Gathering  a  cluster  of  the  freshly 
opened  flowers,  which  still  retained  their  pollen, 
I  took  them  to  my  studio.  I  then  captured  a 
bumblebee,  and  forcibly  persuaded  him  to  enact 
the  demonstration  which  I  had  so  long  waited  for 

1 60 


The  Moccasin-Flower 


him  peaceably  to  fulfil.  Taking  him  by  the  wings, 
I  pushed  him  into  the  fissure  by  which  he  is  natur- 
ally supposed  to  enter  without  persuasion.  He 
was  soon  within  the  sac,  and  the  inflexed  wings  of 


FIG.   3. 

the  margin  had  closed  above  him,  as  shown  in  sec- 
tion, Fig.  2.  He  is  now  enclosed  in  a  luminous 
prison,  and  his  buzzing  protests  are  audible  and  his 
vehemence  visible  from  the  outside  of  the  sac.  Let 
us  suppose  that  he  at  length  has  become  reconciled 

161 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

to  his  condition,  and  has  determined  to  rationally 
fulfil  the  ideal  of  his  environment,  as  he  may,  per- 
haps, have  already  done  voluntarily  before.  The 
buzzing  ceases,  and  our  bee  is  now  finding  sweet 
solace  for  his  incarceration  in  the  copious  nectar 
which  he  finds  secreted  among  the  fringy  hairs  in 
the  upper  narrowed  portion  of  the  flower,  as  shown 
at  Fig.  3. 

Having  satiated  his  appetite,  he  concludes  to  quit 
his  close  quarters.  After  a  few  moments  of  more 
vehement  futile  struggling  and  buzzing,  he  at  length 
espies,  through  the  passage  above  the  nectary  fringe, 
a  gleaming  light,  as  from  two  windows  (A).  To- 
ward these  he  now  approaches.  As  he  advances, 
the  passage  becomes  narrower  and  narrower,  until 
at  length  his  back  is  brought  against  the  over- 
hanging stigma  (Fig.  4).  So  narrow  is  the  pass  at 
this  point  that  the  efforts  of  the  bee  are  distinctly 
manifest  from  the  outside  in  the  distension  of  the 
part  and  the  consequent  slight  change  in  the  droop 
of  the  lip.  In  another  moment  he  has  passed  this 
ordeal,  and  his  head  is  seen  protruding  from  the 
window-like  opening  (A)  on  one  side  of  the  col- 
umn. But  his  struggles  are  not  yet  ended,  for  his 
egress  is  still  slightly  checked  by  the  narrow  dimen- 
sions of  the  opening,  and  also  by  the  detention  of 

162 


\' 


163 


blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


Fig. 


the  anther,  which  his.  thorax  has  now  encountered. 
A  strange  etiquette  this  of  the  cypripedium,  which 
speeds  its  parting  guest  with  a  sticky  plaster  smeared 
all  over  its  back.  As  the  insect  works  its  way 
beneath    the    viscid    contact,  the    anther    is    seen 

to   be  drawn   out- 


1^^  ward  upon  its 
'^-U  hinge,  and  its  yel- 
\:X\  lo^^'  contents  are 
spread  upon  the 
insect's  back  (Fig. 
5),  verily  like  a 
plaster. 

Catching  our  bee  before  he  has  a  chance  to 
escape  with  his  generous  floral  compliments,  we 
unceremoniously  introduce  him  into  another  cypri- 
pedium blossom,  to  which,  if  he  were  more  oblig- 
ing, he  would  naturally  fly.  He  loses  no  time  in 
profiting  by  his  past  experience,  and  is  quickly 
creeping  the  gauntlet,  as  it  were,  or  braving  the 
needle's  eye  of  this  narrow  passage.  His  pollen- 
smeared  back  is  soon  crowding  beneath  the 
overhanging  stigma  again,  whose  forward-pointed 
papillae  scrape  off  a  portion  of  it  (Fig.  4),  thus 
insuring  the  cross-fertilising  of  the  flower,  the 
bee    receiving    a    fresh    effusion    of    cypripedium 

164 


The  Moccasin-Flower 


compliments  piled  upon  the  first  as  he  says  "  good- 

by."    It  is  doubtful  whether  in  his  natural  life  he  ever 

fully    effaces    the 

telltale    effects    of 

this  demonstrative 

ail  rcvoir. 

Such,  with  slight 

modifications,      is 

the  plan  evolved 
by  the  whole  cy- 
pripedium  tribe. 
Darwin  mentions 
bees  as  the  implied 
fertilizers,     and 

doubtless  many  of  the  smaller  bees  do  effect  cross- 
fertilization  in  the  smaller  species.  But  the  more 
ample  passage  in  acaule  would  suggest  the  medium- 
sized  Bombus  as  better  adapted. 

The  large  yellow  lady's-slipper  or  whip-poor- 
will's  shoe,  C.  hirsiitnm,  is  fond  of  swampy  wood- 
lands. It  has  a  peculiar,  rather  disagreeable,  oily 
odor,  which  might  lead  one  to  suppose  that  flies 
fertilize  it.  Darwin,  however,  whom  Professor  Asa 
Gray  interested  in  this  species,  found  that  small 
bees  were  more  serviceable. 

The  smaller  variety  of  the  yellow  lady's-slipper, 

165 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 


C.  parviflortim,  has  a  delightfully  delicate  fragrance  ; 
the  coloring,  too,  is  deeper  than  that  of  its  congener. 
In  all  other  respects,  the  two  species  are  nearly 
identical. 


1 66 


Nature's  Inexhaustible 
Treasures 

The  method  of  fertilization  ot 
each  one  of  our  fifty  native  orchids, 
though  based  upon  one  of  the  fore- 
W  '  g^^"g  P^^"^'  affords  its  new  surprise  in 
its  special  modification  in  adaptation  to  its 
insect  sponsor  —  all  these  various  shapes,  folds 
of  petals,  positions,  colors,  the  size,  length,  and 
thickness  of  nectary,  the  relative  positions  of  pollen 
and  stigma,  embodying  an  expression  of  welcome?, 
to  the  insect  with  which  its  life  is  so  marvellously 

linked. 

There  are  similar  mysteries  to  those  we  have  pen- 
etrated concealed  within  the  heart^.  of  many  other 
of  our  most  common  wild  flowers,  and  it  is  one  of 
the  most  inspiring  fascinations  of  Nature-study  that, 
while  rewarding  her  devotees  with  a  full  measure  of 
her  confidence,  she  still  allures  them  on  with  an 
inexhaustible  reserve.  You  may  discover  some 
unknown  flower,  dissect  and  analyze  its  parts,  and 
find  its  place  among  the  genera  and  species  of  vege- 
tation ;  but  there  are  strange  testimonies  beneath 
its  conformation  that  are  still  unheeded,  even  as  in 

167 


"Blossom  Hosts  and  Insect  Guests 

these  curious  orchids,  known  and  classified  long 
ere  Darwin  sought  the  secret  of  their  wondrous 
forms. 

We  cannot  all  be  scientists  or  explorers,  but  we 
can  at  least  learn  to  lend  an  answering,  intelligent 
welcome  to  those  little  faces  that  smile  at  us  from 
among  the  grass  and  withered  leaves,  that  crowd 
humbly  about  our  feet,  and  are  too  often  idly 
crushed  beneath  our  heel.  The  darkest  patii- 
less  forest  is  relieved  of  its  gloom  to  him  who 
can  nod  a  greeting  with  every  footstep  ;  who  knows 
the  pale  dicentra  that  nods  to  him  in  return  ;  who 
can  call  by  name  the  peeping  lizard  among  the 
moss,  the  pale  white  pipe  among  the  matted  leaves, 
or  even  the,  covering  mould  among  the  damp 
debris. 

And  to  him  who  knows  the  arcana  beneath  a 
stone  ;  who  has  learned  with  reverence  how  the 
clover  goes  to  sleep,  how  the  fireweed  spins  its  silken 
floss,  or  how  the  spider  floats  its  web  from  tree  to 
tree  ;  who  has  seen  the  brilliant  cassida,  the  palpi- 
tating gem  upon  the  leaf,  change  from  burnished 
gold  to  iridescent  pearl,  or  has  watched  the  won- 
drous resurrection  of  the  imago  bursting  from  its 
living  tomb — to  such  a  one  there  is  in  all  the  length 
and  breadth  of  Nature  no  such  thing  as  exile,  no 

i68 


Nature's  Inexhaustible  Treasures 

such  thought  as  loneliness  and  it  were  the  voice  of 
an  unknown  sentiment  which  should  declare  that 

*'  A  primrose  by  a  river's  brim 
A  yellow  primrose  was  to  him, 
And  it  was  nothing  more." 


fi/^ 


169 


INDEX 
A 

PAGE 

Acclepias  cornuta  (Common  milkweed) 97 

Adder's-tongue,  Yellow  (E.  Americanum) 123 

Agents  employed  by  natiu  3  in  transferring  pollen  from  flower 

to  flower ^2 

"  All  down  the  loose-walled  lanes  in  archin'  bowers" 37 

Andromeda  ligustrina 75 

Angraecum,  The  great 28 

Anther,  position  and  contents  of 3 

Apocynum  (Dogbane) loS 

Arethusa  bulbosa 151 

Arisaema  triphyllum  (Jack-in-the-pulpit,  or  Indian  turnip) iii 

Arnold,  Sir  Edwin,  quotation  from 1 

Arum,  The 109 

B 

Barberry,  The  (B.  vulgaris) 37 

Bees,  industry  of 22 

Beggar' s-tick  (D.  accuminatus) 45 

Bermuda  lily  (L.  Harrisi) 122 

Blair,  Patrick,  theory  regarding  honey 6 

Blazing-star  (C.  luteum) 119 

Blue-flag  (I.  versicolor) ii5 

Bluets  (H.  caerulea),  The  riddle  of  the 61 

Botanists,  The  discoveries  of  four  great 1-18 

Botany,  comparison  between  new  and  old i 

the  enchanted  world  of i 

Brenthis  bellona  (Meadow  fritillary) 65 

Brown-eyed  Susan  (R.  hirta) 67 

171 


Index 

^  PAGE 

Calyx,  defined 3 

Canada  lily  (L.  Canadense) 120 

Chamaelirium  luteum  (Devil's-bit) 119 

Cleistogamous  bud  of  the  violet  described 17 

buds  sometimes  hidden  below  ground 17 

flowers  an  economical  provision  of  nature 17 

Clover,  Red  (T.  pratense) 43 

Collinsonia  Canadense  (Horse-balm) 94 

Color  preferences  of  various  insects.  . 23 

result  of  adaptation  to  insects 8 

Compositae  manners .  67 

Corolla,  defined 3 

Cross-fertilization,  a  direct  advantage  to  the  flower 13 

agents  employed  by  nature  to  effect 12 

method  explained  by  Darwin 12 

theory 1-36 

—  universality  of  this  method  in  nature '. .  17 

Cross-fertilized  flowers  the  result  of  natural  selection 13 

Cypripedium  acaule  (Moccasin-flower) 158 

hirsutum  (Large  yellow  lady's-slipper) 165 

parviflorum  (Smaller  yellow  lady's-slipper) 166 

D 

Dandelion,  self-fertilizing  resource  of 32 

Darwin's  revelations  regarding  flower  fertilization 11 

theory  of  fertilization  tested  by  existing  facts 13 

Degeneration,  penalty  of 33 

Desmodium  accuminatus  (Beggar's-tick) 45 

Devil's-bit  (C.  luteum) 119 

Dimorphic  flowers Ci 

Dogbane  (Apocynum) 108 

Dog-tooth  violet  (E.  Americanum) 123 

E 

Evening  primrose.  The  (CE.  biennis) 49 

"A  primrose  by  the  river's  brim" 169 

' '  A  tuft  of  evening  primroses  " 50 

insect  visitor  of 59 

172 


Index 

PAGE 

Evening  primrose,  The,  moth  that  destroys  its  buds 56 

noonday  lesson  of 57 

"  The  worm  i'  the  bud  " 54 

two  kinds  of  buds 5o 

winter  story  of 59 

Evolution,  period  of  time  necessary  for  its  work 24 

F 

Families  of  flowers,  how  far  their  methods  of  fertilization  are 

uniform ■'■' 

Fertilization,  inference  of  early  authorities  regarding 5 

Figwort,  The  (Scrophularia) 79 

Fire  lily  (L.  Philadelphicum) ^21 

Flower,  An  abstract ; ^ 

A,  how  its  shape  may  enable  one  to  name  its  insect  visitor... .  27 

^  of  to-day ^° 

significance  of  its  position  on  the  stalk 27 

riowering  and  non-flowering    plants,   varying  laws  governing 

their  fertilization ^7 

Flowering  plants  all  subject  to  the  law  of  cross-fertilization.  ...  18 

Flowers,  certain,  invariably  self-fertilized 16 

dimorphic ^ 

evil-smelling,  adapted  to  carrion-loving  flies 8 

heterostyled ^^ 

how  they  protect  themselves  from  creeping  pilferers 23 

methods  of  preventing  self-fertilization .8-10 

reasons  which  tend  to  make  certain  insects  true  to  certain 

species  of ^3 

two-formed "^ 

uses  of  fringe  on -° 

variations  of  sometimes  indicate  the  beginning  of  a  new 

species 3-4 

varying  degrees  of  adaptation  to  insects 15 

Fragrance,  result  of  adaptation  to  insects 8 

G 

Genista  tinctoria  (Woad-waxen) 47 

Ginseng,  its  cleistogamous  buds ^7 

"  Gold-barred  butterflies  " ^9 

173 


Index 


PAGE 

Goodyera  (Rattlesnake-plantain) 145 

Grew,  Nehemias,  explains  the  relation  of  stamens  and  pistils.  .  .        3 
how  far  correct  in  his  theory  of  flower  fertilization.  .  .       6 

H 

Habenaria  flava  (Small  pale  green  orchis) 139 

lacera  (Ragged  orchid) 136 

orbiculata  (Great  round-leaved  or  (rreat  green  orchis) 141 

psycodes  (Purple-fringed  orchid) 135 

Heath  family,  The 71 

Heterostyled  flowers 61 

Horse-balm  (C.  Canadense) 94 

Houstonia  caerulea  (Bluets) 61 

I 

Indian  turnip  (A.  triphyllum) iii 

Insect  fertilization  of  flowers,  theory  of  propounded  by  Sprengel,  7 

Insects,  How  the  flowers  woo  the 19 

Iris  versicolor  (Blue-flag) 115 

how  it  suffers  from  pilferers. 118 

J 

Jack-in-the-pulpit  (A.  triphyllum) iii 

how  it  entraps  its  visitors 112 

K 

Kalmia  latifolia  (Mountain  laurel) 71 

Krunitz,  his  theory  regarding  honey 6 

L 

Lady's-slipper  (C.  hirsutum) 165 

Lady's-tresses  (Spiranthes) 1 50 

Lilium  Canadense  (Canada  lily) 120 

Harrisi  (Bermuda  lily) 122 

Philadelphicum  (Fire  lily) 121 

Lily  family 119 

Linnaeus,  confirms  Grew's  theory 5 

theory  of  flower  fertilization,  how  far  correct 6 

puzzled  regarding  functions  of  honey 6 

174 


Index 

PAGE 

Loosestrife.  Purple  (L.  salicaria) 66 

Lucerne,  The  (M.  sativa) 46 

Ly thrum  salicaria  (Purple  loosestrife) 66 

M 

Madder  family,  The 61 

Meadow  fritillary  (Brenthis  bellona) 65 

Medicago  sativa  (Lucerne) 46 

Milkweed,  Common  (A.  cornuta) 97 

how  it  entraps  its  benefactors 103 

Mint  family,  The 91 

Moccasin-flower  (C.  acaule) 15  / 

Moth  that  destroys  the  Evening  primrose  bud^-   56 

that  fertilizes  the  Evening  primrose 58 

Mountain  laurel.  The  (K.  latifolia) 71 

N 

Natural  selection,  conditions  under  which  it  works 34 

how  it  perfects  the  flowers 13 

how  it  works  in  adapting  flower  and  insect 24 

Nature's  frugality 34 

inexhaustible  treasures 167 

tolerance 32 

Nectar,  laws  governing  its  secretion 24 

result  of  adaptation  to  insects 8 

Nectaries,  work  of  natural  selection  in  developing 22 

Nectary  riddles  and  their  explanation 21 

Non-flowering  plants 17 

o 

Oenothera  biennis  (Evening  primrose) 49 

Orchid,  An,  defined 126 

blossoms,  how  they  differ  from  other  flowers 125 

Large  round-leafed  (H.  orbiculata) 141 

Purple-fringed  (H.  psycodes) 135 

Ragged  (H.  lacera) .      136 

Showy  (O.  spectabilis) 129 

Orchids,  adaptations  to  eyes,  tongues,  etc.,  of  insects 134 

columns  of 127 

175 


Index 


PAGE 

Orchids,  delicacy  of 35 

seed-pods  of 128 

Orchis,  Great  green  (H.  orbicuhita) 141 

morio 7 

nectar,  how  concealed 8 

reason  for  peculiar  concealment  of  nectar 27 

Tubercled,  or  Small  pale  green  (H.  flava) 139 

Oxalis  (Wood-sorrel) 66 

P 

Pedicularia  Canadensis  (Wood-betony) 85 

Pickerel  weed.  Blue  (P.  cordata) 66 

Pistil,  parts  of 3 

lessons 25 

Pogonia,  Sweet  or  Grass-pink  (P.  ophioglossoides) 155 

Pollen,  functions  of 4 

Pollination,  see  Fertilization. 

Poly  gala,  its  cleistogamous  buds 16 

Pontidera,  his  theory  regarding  honey 6 

Pontidera  cordata  (Blue  pickerel  weed) 66 

Primrose,  see  Evening  primrose. 

Progress  Nature's  law 33 

Pulse  family.  The 43 

Purple-fringed  orchid  (H.  psycodes) 135 

Purple  loosestrife  (L.  salicaria) 66 

Q 

Quaker-ladies  (H.  caerulea) o . . .  -  61 

R 

Rattlesnake-plantain,  The  (Goodyera) 145 

Rudbeckia  hirta  (Brown-eyed  Susan) 67 

s 

Sage,  The  (S.  officinalis) 91 

Scrophularia  (Figwort) 79 

"  Secrets  of  Nature  in  Forms  and  Fertilization  Discovered.  The,"  6 

Self-fertilization,  conditions  preventing S-10-12 

Sham  nectar-producers,  note 7 

176 


Index 


PAGE 

"  Shein  saft  blumen  " 7 

Skunk-cabbage  (S.  foetidus) 112 

destructive  to  insect  life 1 14 

Speculations,  Early,  regarding  the  functions  of  honey 5 

Spiranthes  (Lady's-tresses) 150 

Sprengel,  Conrad,  announces  that  flowers  are  fertilized  by  in- 
sects    7 

begins  his  investigations 6 

process  of  flower  fertilization  suggested  by 7 

"Secrets  of  Nature  in  Forms  and  Fertilization  Dis- 
covered " 6 

weak  points  in  his  theory  of  flower  fertilization 7,  S 

where  his  errors  lay i  r 

Stamens,  described 3 

lessons  of 25 

varieties  of 27 

Stigma,  must  receive  pollen  in  order  to  mature  fruit 4 

Survival  of  the  fittest,  law  of,  see  Natural  selection. 

Symplocarpus  foetidus  (Sktmk-cabbage) 112 

T 

Tineidae  moth 56 

Trifolium  pratense  (Red  clover) 43 

Trout  lily  (E.  Americanum) 123 

V 

V^ariation,  tendency  to,  in  individual  flowers 14 

V'ariations  in  flowers  sometimes  indicative  of  the  beginning  of 

a  ^lew  species 34 

V^iolet.  The 16 

its  cleistogamous  buds 16 

w 

Wasp,  The 80 

Whippoorwill's  shoe  (C.  hirsutum) 165 

Woad-waxen  (G.  tinctoria) 47 

Wood-betony,  The  (P.  Canadense) 85 

Wood-sorrel  (Oxalis) 66 


SUPPLEMENT 


The  following  tables  give  the  botanical  name,  insect 
visitor,  method,  if  any,  of  preventing  or  limiting  self-fertili- 
zation,* and  vai'ious  otlier  facts  for  about  two  hundred  and 
Hfty  species  of  our  native  wihl  Howers.  This  matter  is  in- 
tended only  to  indicate  the  lines  along  which  personal  inves- 
tigation may  be  carried  on,  as  it  is  impossible  with  the 
scanty  data  at  present  available  on  this  subject,  to  compile 
anything  exhaustive  or  final.  Gray's  classification  has  been 
followed. 

In  supplying  the  information  given  under  the  head  of 
"  Insect  Visitors,"  the  ol)ject  in  view  has  been  to  give  the 
insects  best  adapted  to  serve  the  needs  of  the  fiowers,  not  to 
give  a  complete  list  of  all  the  insects  that  may  at  various 
times  visit  them.  The  names  of  the  less  important  insects 
as  well  as  their  scientific  names,  where  given,  are  enclosed  in 
brackets. 


*Tlie  later  writers  niakt-  a  distinctiou  between  "fertilization"  and  "  polhna- 
tion."  "  E^)llination  "  is  used  to  signify  the  transfer  of  pollen  from  anther  to 
stigma,  while  "fertilization"  is  understood  to  mean  the  union  of  the  nucleus  of 
the  pollen  grain  with  the  nucleus  of  the  ovule.  This  technical  distinction,  for 
various  reasons,  it  has  not  been  thought  necessary  to  observe  in  the  present  vol- 
ume, the  terms  being  used  interchangeably. 

170 


Supplement 

Crowfoot  Family  {Ra.nunculkcea.e) 

Common  Name 

Scientific 
Name 

Insect 
Visitors 

Method   of    Prevent- 
ing OR  Limiting  Self- 
fertilization,  ETC. 

Virgin's   Bower, 

or  Virginia 

Clematis 

Clematis 
Virginiana 

Flies  and  short- 
tongued  bees 

Stigmatic  flowers  gener- 
ally separate  from  stam- 
inate  flowers. 

Liver-leaf,  or 
Hepatica 

Hepatica 
triloba 

Pollen-collecting 

bees  and  flies 

(beetles) 

Some  flowers  perfect,  oth- 
ers stigmatic,  and  oth- 
ers staminate.  Perfect 
flowers  frequently  self- 
fertilized. 

Sharp-lobed 
Hepatica 

Hepatica 
acutiloba 

Bees  and  flies 

Stigmatic  flowers  some- 
times separate  from 
staminate  ones. 

VVindflower,  or 
Wood  Anemone 

Anemone 
nemorosa 

Bees,  beetles, 
and  flies 

Self-fertilization  probably 
quite  frequent. 

Tall  Meadow 

Kue 

Thalictrum 
(,'oruuti 

Many  insects 

Some  flowers  perfect,  oth- 
ers staminate,  others 
stigmatic. 

Common    Mead- 
ow Buttercup, 

or 
Tall  Crowfoot 

Kanunculus 
acris 

60  species  noted 

White 
Baneberry 

Actaea 
41ba 

Female  bees 
(Halictus) 

Tendency  toward  matur- 
ing stigma  before  an- 
thers. 

Black  Cohosh, 

or 
Tall  Bugbane 

Cimicifuga 
racemosa 

Pollen-gathering 
flies 

Marsh  Marigold,            Cmha 

or                      palustris 
Amer.  Cowshp 

Bees  and  flies 
(beetles  and 
butterflies) 

Anthers  open  outward. 

Gold-thread, 

or 
Canker  Root 

Coptis 
tnfolia 

Gnats  and 
beetles 

Wild  Columbine 

Aquilegia 
Canadensis 

Bumblebees  and 
hummingbirds 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigma.  Flower  has  lost 
the  power  of  self-ferti- 
lization. 

European,  or 

Common  Garden 

Columbine 

Aquilegia 
vulgaris 

Bumblebees, 

long-lipped  bees, 

long-tongued 

bees 

Some  anthers  mature  be- 
fore stigmas. 

Field,  or 
Branched 
Larkspur 

Delphinium 
Coiisolida 

Bumblebees  and 
butterflies 

Anthers  mature  and  with- 
er before  stigmas  are 
mature.  Flower  has  lost 
power  of  self-fertiliza- 
tion. 

Tall  Wild 
Larkspur 

Delphinium 
exaltatum 

Bumblebees      jAnthers     mature   before. 
'    stigma. 

Magnolia  Family  {cMaqnoUa.ceke) 

Laurel,  or              Magnolia       1         Beetles           IStigma    matures     before 
Small  Magnolia            glauca         i                                1    anthers. 

ISO 


Supplcvieiit 

Barberry  Family  {Berberidaceae) 

Common-  Xa.me 

Scientific; 

iS'AME 

LXSECT 
YlSITOKS 

Method    of    Pkevent- 
IN(;  OR  Limiting  Self- 

EEKTILIZATION,  ETC. 

Common 
Barbeny 

Berberis 
vulgaris 

Bees 

(beetles  and 

flies) 

Pollen  concealed  in  boxes, 
stamens  liberated  by  the 
iusect.  Self-fertilization 
not  probable.    See  text 

"Water-Iily  Family  {Nymphaeaceae) 

Yellow  Nelumbo,         Neliimbo 
or                        luteum 
Water  Climqiiepiu 

Small  bees,  flies, 
and  beetles 

Stigma  matures  before 
anthers 

Sweet  Scented 

White  AVater  Lily 

or  Pond  I.ily 

Nymphaea      ]  Pollen-gathering 
odoriita             bees  and  flies 

1         (beetles) 

Self-fertilization  possible 

Large  Yellow 

Pond  or 

Water  Lily 

Nuphar 
advena 

Small  bees,  flies, 
and  beetles 

Stigma  matures  before 
anthers 

Poppy  Family  (Papa'veraceae) 

Blood  root       1     Sanguinaria     i    Sliort-longued      Stigma    matures     before 
1     Canadensis      |     bees  and  flies         anthers 

Fumitory  Family  (Fumartaceae) 

Dutchman's 
Breeches,  or 
White  Hearts 

Dicentra 
cucullaria 

Long-tongued 
female  bumble- 
bees 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigmas 

Pale  Corydalis 

CorydaUs 
glaiica 

Pollen-collecting 
bees,  also  humble- 
bees  seeking 
nectar 

Mustard  Family  (Cruet ferae) 

Field  or 
Corn  Mustard 

Brassica  Siuapis 
arveusis 

Bees  and  flies 

Anthers  rotate  away  from 
stigma.  Self-fertiliza- 
tion possible 

Ladies'  Smock, 

or 
Cuckoo-flower 

Cardamine 
prateusis 

Many  insects 

Antliers  rotate  away  from 
stigma.  Self-fertiliza- 
tion possible 

Bulbous,  or 
Spring  Cress 

Cardamine 
rhomboidea 

Bees,  flies,  butter- 
flies, etc.  (Andrena 
and  Halictus) 

Stamens  revolve  away 
from  stigma.  Self-ferti- 
lization possible 

Two-leaved       j        Dentaria 

Pollen-collecting 
bees  (Andrena  and 

Halictus) 

Whitlow  grass     i          Draba 
'          ve'rna 

Pollen-collecting   Self-fertilization  very 
bees                 common 

Shepherd's               Capsella 
Purse             Bursa-pastoris 

Fhes  (Syrphidiie    Self-fertilization  very 
and  Muscidie)    1    common 

181 


Supplement 

Violet  Family  (Tro/kce^e) 

Common  Name 

Scientific- 
Nam  E 

Method    of   Pkevent 

INSECT                 jjyfj  Qi^  LlJIITINd  SELF- 
V  ISITOKS                FERTILIZATION,  ETC. 

Arrow-leaved 
Violet 

Viola 
sagittata 

Bees             Showy  flowers  cross  fer- 
tilized. Depends  largely 
for  the  propagation  of 
its   kind   upon    cleisto- 
gamous  buds 

Common  Blue 
Violet 

Viola 
cucuUata 

Snudl  pollen-col-  Stigma   remote  from  an- 
lecting  bees  (Os-      ther,  but  self-pollination 
mias)   (bumble-       possible 
bees,  butterflies) 

Early  Blue 
Violet 

Viola 
palmata 

Bees  and 
butterflies 

Protruding  stigma  strikes 
incoming  bee.  Pollen 
liberated,  by  the  jar  of 
insect's  contact  with  the 
stigma,  from  the  anther 

Bird-foot 
Violet 

Viola 
pedata 

Long-tongued  bees 
and  butterflies 

Sweet  White 
Violet 

Viola 
blanda 

Bees 

Primrose-leaved 
Violet 

Viola 
primuhefolia 

" 

Lance-leaved 
Violet 

Viola 
lanceolata 

" 

Canada 
Violet 

Viola 
Canadensis 

1 

Rock-rose  Family  {Cista.cea.e) 

Long-branched 
frostweed,  or 
Frost  flower 

Helianthemum 
Canadense 

Many  insects 

Stamens  lie  flat  to  petals 
well  away  from  stigma 

St»  JohnVwort  Family  {Hypericaceae) 

Common 
St.  John's  Wort 

Hypericum      !  Pollen-gathering  iSelf-fertilization  very 
perforatum      bees.     Pollen-eat-     common 
ing  flies  (Beetles)  1 

Marsh            j          Elodes            Pollen-gathering  ISelf-fevtilization  very 
St.  John's  Wort         Virginica        bees.     Pollen-eat-     common 
1                              l,ing  flies  (Beetles) 

Pink  Family  {Caryophytlaceae) 

Subdivision  Chickwccd  Family 

Deptford 
Pink 

Dianthus 
Armeria 

Butterflies       j  Self-pollination  probable 

Corn-cockle 

Lychnis 
Githago 

Moths,  bees,  flies,  Anthers    mature     before 
butterflies        I    stigma 

Wild  or  Pink 
Catchfly 

Silene           |             Bees, 
Pennsylvanica          butterflies 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigmas,  2  sets  of  sta- 
mens maturing  at  differ- 
ent intervals,  3  styles 

Fire 
Pink 

Silene          1        Butterflies 
Virginica       '                                ' 

182 


Supplement 

Pink  Yz.mAy— Continued 

Common  Name 

Scientific 
Name 

Insect 

ViSITOKS 

Method  of  Prevent- 
ing OK  Limiting  Self- 

FEUTIMZATION,  ETC. 

Sturry 
Cainpion 

Silene 
stellata 

Moths  and 
butterflies 

IMadder 
C'ampiou 

Silene 
inflata 

Moths 

Some  flowers  perfect,  oth- 
ers staminate,  and  oth- 
ers stigmatic;  still  oth- 
ers mature  anthers  and 
stigmas  at  different  peri- 
ods 

Soapwort, 

or 

Houncing  Bet 

Saponaria 
otticinalis 

Sphinx  Moth 

Pollen-gathering 

bees 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigmas,  2  sets  of  sta- 
mens maturing  at  differ- 
ent intervals 

Common 
Chickweed 

Stellaria 
media 

Small  bees 
and  flies 

Has  not  lost  the  power  of 
self-fertilization,  though 
its  anthers  generally 
mature  before  its  stigma 

Purslane  Family  (PortuUcaceae) 

.Spring  Beauty           Claytonia          Female  bnmble- 
1       Yirgiuica               bees  (flies, 
1                                    butterflies) 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigma 

Mallow  Family  {Mat<vacea.e) 

Swamp  Rose      '        Hibiscus 
:\IaIlo\v               Moscheutos 

Bumblebees      jAnthers    mature    before 
1    stigma 

CommoM  orliound-    Malva  rotundi- 
leaved  Mallow                folia 

Mainly  bees      .Self-fertilization    very 
1    common 

High  Mallow 

Malva 
sylvestris 

Many  insects 

Pistils  radiate  away  from 
stamens.  Stamens  ma- 
ture first 

Geranium  Family  {Gerania.cea.e) 

Yellow  Wood 
Sorrel 

Oxalis  stricta 

Bees            1  Self-pollination  usual 

Wliite  or  True 
Wood  Sorrel 

Oxalis 
Acetosella 

Few  insects 

Showy  flowers  ineai)able 
of  self-fertilization.  Pro- 
duces also  cleistoga- 
mous buds 

Violet  Wood 
Sorrel 

Oxalis  violacea 

Small  bees       i  Dimorphic  blossoms 

Wild  or  Spotted 

(ien-anium  or 

Cranes  bill 

Geranium 
macnlatum 

Bees 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigma 

Herb  Robert  or 
Red  Robin 

Ger&,nium 
Robertianum 

Flies 

Anthers  mature  befoie 
stigma.  Two  sets  of 
stamens.  Evil-smelling 
flower 

Spotted  Touch-me- 
not  or  Jewel 
weed 

Impatiens 
fulva 

Bees,  humming    Stigma  concealed  beneath 

birds                 stamens.     Anthers 

mature  first.     Produces 

also  cleistogamous 

buds 

183 


Supplement 

Cashew  Family  {Anaca.rdia.cea.e) 

Common  Name 

Scientific 
Name 

TvsFCT              1    ^lETHOD  OF  PrEVENT- 

VisiToKv.         i  ING  OK  Limiting  Self- 

V  IbllOKb                 FERTILIZATION,  ETC. 

Staghorn 
Sumac 

Rhus  typhina 

Sliort-tongued     Stigmatic  flowers   gener- 
bees  and  flies     ;    ally  separate  from  stam- 
i     inate  ones 

Staff- tree  Family  (CeUstraceae) 

Climbing 
Bitter-sweet 

celastrus 
scandens 

Small  bees  and    Stigmatic  flowers  geuer- 
flies             1    ally  separate  from  stam- 
iuate  ones 

Polygala  Family  {Potygata.cea.e) 

Coimiiou  Field            Polygala 
Pm-i,le  Milkwort!       ^anguinea 

Bees 

Fruiting  organs  within  a 
tube  split  on  the  back  to 
insure  contact  witli  bee 

Racemed 
Milkwort 

Polygala 
polygama 

Bees 

Produces  both  showy  and 
cleistogamous  buds 

Fringed 
Polygala 

Polygala 
paucifolia 

Bumblebees 

Stamens  and  pistils  are 
enclosed  in  keel,  the  two 
surfaces,  however, 
turned  in  opposite  direc- 
tions. Produces  also 
cleistogamous  buds 

Pulse  Family  {Leguminosae) 
Note.— As  a  family  the  peas  follow  the  plan  of  concealing  both  anthers  and 
stigmas  within  a  keel.    When  these  organs  are  released  by  the  pressure  of  the 
insect  the  stigma  strikes  the  visitor  first,  thus  receiving  pollen  from  another 
flower  before  its  own  is  bestowed  upon  its  benefactor. 

Wild             1        Lnpiuus        1  Long-lipped  pol-  1 
Lupine           |        perennis        lien-collecting  bees 

Kattle  box       1       Crotalaria 
1        sagittalis 

Bees            1 

White            1        INIelilotus 
Sweet  Clover      1            alba 

Short-tongued 

bees 

Red                    Trifolium 
Clover                  pratense 

Bumblebees, 

butterflies 

(hummingbirds) 

Trailing                Lespedeza 
Bush  Clover           i)rocunibens 

Bees              Produces  also    cleistoga- 
i    mons  buds 

Canadian  or 
Showy  Tick-trefoil 

J)csino(liuni 
Canadeuse 

Pollen-collecting  j 

bees  (bumblebees,] 

chiefly)           1 

Ground-nut,  or 
Wild  Beau 

Apios 
tuberosa 

Jiuttei  flies  and     Pulp  between  anthers  and 
long-tongued  beesl    stigma.    Produces   also 
cleistogamous  buds 

Hog-Peanut 

Amphicari)fea 
monoica 

Bees             j  Produces   also   cleistoga- 
1    mous  buds 

Butterfly         i         Clitoria 
Pea             1        Mariana 

Bees 

Beach                    Lathyrus 
Pea              1      maritinnis 

Long-tongued      Self-pollination  probable 
bees              1 

184 


Supplement 

Pulse  Family — Continued 

CoMMox  Name 

Scientific 
Name 

Insect 

ViSITOKS 

Method   of   Prevent- 
ing OR  Limiting  Self- 
fertilization,  ETC. 

Blue,  Tutted  or 
Cow  Vetch 

Vicia 
Cracca 

Flies,  buttertlies, 
bees 

Self-fertilization  usual 

AVild  False 
Indigo 
Wild 
Senna 

Baptisia 
tinctoria 

Bees 

Cassia                  Bumblebees 
Marilandica 

Small  Flowering 
Senna 

Cassia            Pollen-gathering 
mctitans        1       bumblebees 

Anthers  radiate  away 
from  stigma 

Rose  Family  {Rossicea.e) 

Note.— Roses  as  a  family  are  ai)t  to  mature  tlieir  anthers  and  stigmas  simul- 
taneously, but  the  former  are  usually  turned  outward,  so  that  the  insect  visitor 
may  strike  the  stigma  lirst. 

Meadow-sweet            Spiraea 
salicifolia 

Small  bees  (Audre- 

nid;e   ;tnd   Syrphi- 

die;  and  beetles 

Stigma  gtuicraliy  uuitures 
before  anthers,  though 
self-fertilizatU)U  is  not 
infrequent 

Nine-bark                 Spirfea 
opulifolia 

Bees 
and  flies 

Hardback,  or             Spin%a 
Steeplebush            tomeutosa 

Pollen-collecting 
bees 

Self-fertilization  very 
connnon 

Goats-beard 

Spirjfea 
Aruncus 

Bees,  flies, 
and  beetles 

Some  flowers  perfect,  oth- 
ers staminate,  and  oth- 
ers stigmatic 

Queen-of-the      1         Spinea 
Prairie           1          lobata 

Butterflies 
and  bees 

Indian  Physic,  or         (iillenia 
American  Ipecac          trifoliiita 

Small  loug- 
tougupd  bees 

Purple  or  Water  i           Geum 
Avens           ]          rivale 

Bumblebees 

Stigmas  generally  mature 
before  anthers 

White  Avens     i           Geum 
'          album 

Bees  and  flies     Stigmas     matiu-e    before 
I    anthers 

Virginia                  Fragaria 
Strawberry             Virginiana 

Several  insects 

S  t  i  g  matie  flowers  fre- 
quently separate  from 
staminate  flowers 

Prochices  l)()tli  showy  and 
cleistoganu)us  buds 

Creei)ing         ,       Dalibarda 
Dalibarda                 repens 

Purple  flowering, 
or  Virginia 
Pvaspberry 

Rubus 
odoratus 

Several  insects, 
no  special  visitor 

Outer  anthers  mature  a 
little  before  stigmas,  but 

Bumblebees 

self-fertilization  from 
the  inner  row  of  anthers 
is  conuuon 

Wild  Red         j          Rubus 
Raspberry       !        strigosus 

Pollen-collecting  Self-fertilization  verv 
bees             !    common 

High             i          Rubus 
P.lackberry                villosns 



Bumblebees       Stigma  generally  matures 
a  little  before  anthers. 
Stamens  turn  away  from 
stigma.       Self-fertiliza- 
tion not  uncommon. 

185 


Supplement 


Rose  Family — Continued 


Common  Name 


scikntific 
Name 


INSECT 
^'ISITOK.S 


Method  of  Prevent- 
ing OK  LiMiTiN(J  Self- 
fertilization,  ETC. 


Couunon 
Agrimony 


Agrimonia 
Eiipatoria 


Flies  and  bees 


Self-fertilization  nsual 


Conniion 
Hawthorn 


June 
Berry 


Crataegus 
_  coccinea 
Anieranchier 
Canadensis 


Flies  and  beetles   Stigma  matures  before  an- 
thers 


Female  bees      iSelf-fertilization  probable 


Saxifrage  Family  {Saxifragkceae) 


Grass  of 
Parnassus 


Parn^ssia 
Caroliniana 


Early 
Saxifrage 


Saxifraga 
Virginiensis 


False 
Mitre  wort 


Tiarella 
Corditolia 


Flies  and  bees 


Flies  and  bees 


Bees 


Anthers     mature    before 
stigma 


Anthers     mature    before 
stigma 


Orpine  Family  {Crassula.cea.e) 


Orpine,  or        i 
[iive-forever      | 


Sedum 
Telephium 


Bees  and  Hies 


I  Anthers     mature    before 
I    stigma 


Witch-Hazel  Family  {Hamametaceae) 


Witch-Hazel 


Hamamelis 
Virgimca 


Bees  and  tlies 


Stigmatic  flowers  gener- 
i  ally  separate  from  stam- 
i    Inate  flowers 


Evening-Primrose  Family  (Onagraceae) 


Enchanter's 
M  ightshade 


Circ*a 
Lutetiana 


Bees  and  flie^ 


j Stigma  a  landing  place  for 
incoming  insects.  Self- 
fertilization  infrequent 


G  reat  Willow-herb 
or  Fire  weed       I 


Epilobium 
angustifolium 


Bumblebees 


Anthers    mature    before 
stigma 


Evening  Primrose       CEnothera 
biennis 


Motlis 

(bumblebees. 

humming  birds) 


Anthers    mature    before 
stigma 


Common 
Sundrop 


CEnothero 
fructic6sa 


Bumblebees  and 
butterflies 


Stigmas  i)rotnide  far  be- 
yond anthers.  Self-fer- 
tilization impossible 


Melastoma  Family  (Metastomaceae) 


Meadow-Beauty, 
or  Deer-Grass 


Kiiexia 
Virginica 


Bees 


Loosestrife  Family  {Lythraceae) 


Spiked  Loosestrife! 


Lythruin 
Salicaria 


Butterflies  and 
bees  (flies) 


ITrimorphie 


Cactus  Family  (Cactaceae) 


Common 
I      Pricl<ly-Fear 


Oi>untia 
vulgaris 


Flies,  bees 
beetles 

186 


ISelf-fertillzation  usual 


Supplement 

Gourd  Family  {Cucurbitaceae) 

Common  Name 

Scientific 
Name 

Insect 
Visitors 

Method  of  Prevent- 
ing OR  Limiting  Self- 
fertilization,  etc. 

Stai-('ii('uiiil)t'r 

Sicyos 
angulatus 

Several  insects, 
no  special  visitor 

Stigmatic  flowers  sepa- 
rate from  staminate 
flowers 

Parsley  Family  {Umbeltifera.e) 

Black  Snake-root 

Sanlcula 
Maryldndica 

Several  insects, 
no  special  visitor 

Stigmas  mature  before 
anthers,  which  are  im- 
prisoned beneath  tlie 
petals  nntd  all  danger  of 
self-fertilization  is  past. 
Some  flowers  perfect, 
otliers  staminate  only 

C'oiuiuoii  Cairot 

DaCicus  Caruta 

Bees,  wasps,  flies, 
beetles,  etc. 

Stigmatic  flowers  on  outer 
edge.  Staminate  flow- 
ers gr()up(Hl  in  center 

Sweet  Cieely 

Osmorrhiza 
longistylis 

Flies  and  bees 

Some  flowers  perfect, 
otliers  staminate.  In 
the  perfect  flowers  the 
anthers  mature  before 
the  stigmas 

Water  Hemlock, 

or 
Spotted  Cowbane 

Ciciita  maculata 

Flies,  bees,  and 
wasps 

Some  perfect,  others  stam- 
inate flowers.  Perfect 
flowers  mature  anthers 
before  stigmas 

Cow-Parsuip 

Heracleum      i    Flies,  bees,  and 
lanatnm        |           wasps 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigmas 

Ginseng  Family  {Aratikceae) 

Spikenard 

Aralia  racemosa 

Chiefly  flies  and    Some  flowers   p  e  r  f  e  c  t, 
bees                others  staminate,  others 
stigmatic 

Coninioii  Wild 
Sarsaparilla 

Aralia 
nudicaulis 

Flies  and  bees 

(iiuseng 

Aralia 
quinquefolia 

Several  insects,    Bears    both    showy    and 
no  special  visitor  I    cleistogamous  flowers 

Dogwood  Family  {Cornkcea.e) 

Flowering        1          Cornus          1    Bees,  tlies,  and     Self-fertilization  possible 
Dogwood         1          florida          '        bntterflies        | 

Honeysuckle  Family  {CaprifoUaceae) 

Twin-flower               Linntea        i     Bees  and  flies 
1        borealis         I 

Stigma  protrudes,  ni  ad- 
vance of  anthers 

Coral  or  Trnnipet 
Honeysuckle 

Lonicera          Hummingbirds 
sempervirens 

Sweet  Wild       |        Lonicera              Spbinx  niotli       Stigma  protrudes  and  re- 
Honeysuekle      |           grata          1                                     ccives  incoming  bee 

Husb             1        Diervilla                     Bees              Stigma  protrudes  and  re- 
Honeysuckle      1           tritida                                                   eeives  incoming  l)ee 

187 


Supplement 

Honeysuckle  Family — Continued 

Common  Name 

Scientific 
Name 

Insect 
Visitors 

Method  of  Prevent- 
ing OR  Limiting  Self- 
fertilization,  etc. 

High 
Bush-Cranberry 

Viburnum 
6pulus 

Small  bees  and 
flies 

Insects  cross-fertilize 
flowers  merely  bv  crawl- 
ing over  the  clusters 

Hobblebush 

Viburnum 
lantauoides 

Small  bees 

(Andrena) 

and  flies 

Insects  cross-fertilize 
flowers  merely  by 
crawling  over  the  clus- 
ters 

Common  Elder 

Sambucus 
Canadensis 

Pollen  gatherers, 

flies,  beetles,  and 

lesser  bees 

Stamens  radiate  away 
from  stigma 

Madder  Family  {RubiAceae) 

Partridge-berry  i       Mitchella       1             Bees 
repens          | 

Dimorphic  blossoms 

Button-bush 

Cephalanthus 
occidentalis 

Bees  and  butter- 
flies chiefly 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigma.  Peculiar  meth- 
od. The  pollen  is  shed 
on  the  style  before  the 
buds  open,  but  is  car- 
ried away  by  insects  be- 
fore the  stigma  matures 

Bluets 

Houstonia 
Cierulea 

Flies,  bees,  and     Dimorphic  flowers 
butterflies 

Tea0el  Family  {Dipskceae) 

Wild  Teazel       i        Dipsacus        i       Bumblebees       Anthers    mature    before 
1       sylvestris       1                                 I    the  stigma 

Composite  Family  (Compositae) 
As  a  family  the  Composita?  have   developed  two  characteristics  which  insure 
cross-fertilization ;  the  first  is  the  method  of  grouping  many  small  florets  in  one 
head,  thus  attracting  the  attention  of  insects  by  a  great  expanse  of  color;  the 
second  is  the  method  desmbt-d  in  the  text  under  "the  cone-flower  of  ejecting  their 
pollen  from  their  tul)es  witli  the  stigmas,  which  act  as  piston  rods.  After  the  pol- 
len has  been  distributed  the  stigmas  mature  and  are  ready  to  receive  foreign  pollen. 

Common 
Burdock 

Lappa 
officinalis 

Butterflies  and 
bumblebees 

Common 
Tansy 

Janacetum 
vulgare 

Bees,  flies,  beetles.: 
and  butterflies    i 

Pearly  Everlast- 
ing, or 
Immortelle 

Antennaria 
margaritacea 

Flies  and  beetles  ,Stigmati<!  flowers   gener- 
1    ally  sejjarate from  stam- 
1    inate  flowers 

Iron-weed 

Vernonia 
Noveboracensis 

Butterflies  and 
long-lipped  bees 

Common 
Blazing-star 

Liatris 
squarrosa 

Long-tongued     1 
bees  and  flies 

Purple  Thorough-     Eui)at6rium 
wort,  or  Joe-Pye        purpureum 
weed 

Butterflies  chiefly  Anthers     mature    before 
(bees  and  flies)    1    stigma 

Thoroughwort,    i     Eupatorium 
or  Boneset            perfoliatum 

Beetles,  flies,     j 
wasps,  and  bees  i 

188 


Supplcuioit 

Composite  Family — Continued 

Common  Name 

Scientific 

NA3IE 

Insect 

ViSITOK 

Method  of  Prevent- 
ing OR  Limiting  Self- 
fertilization,  ETC. 

Grouiuisel-bush 
or  tree 

Senecio 
vulgaris 

Very  few  uisects, 
bees  chiefly 

Stigmatic  flowers  fre- 
quently separate  from 
staminate  ones :  self- 
fertilization  usual,  how- 
ever, snice  many  seeds 
are  produced  even  in 
seasons  unfavorable  to 
insect  visits 

(ioldt'ii  Kagwort, 
or  ^(niaw-weed 

Senecio        1      Many  insects 
aureus         1 

Elacainpaue,  or 
Horselieal 

Inula 
Helenium 

Disk  florets  contain  both 
l)istils  and  stamens,  ray 
florets  apt  to  be  stamin- 
ate only 

(Toklen-Kods 

Solidiiigo 

Disk  florets  contain  both 
pistils  and  stamens,  ray 
florets  apt  to  be  stami- 
nate only 

Starworts, 
or  Asters 

Aster 

"           ** 

Self-fertilization  frequent 

Daisy-leaved 

Fleabaiie,  or 

Piobiii's  Plantain 

Erigerou 
bellidifolium 

Bees  and 
thistle  butterfly 

Larger 
Daisy-Fleabane 

Erigeron 
anuuum 

Many  insects 

Self-fertilization  usual 

Yarrow, 
or  .Milfoil 

Achillea 
Millefolium 

Bees,  flies,  butter- 
flies, and  beetles 

Common  ]\Iay 
weed,  (»r  Camomile 

Maruta 
Cotula 

Flies 

Ray  flowers  neutral 

Conmion 
Daisy 

Chrysanthemum 
Leucanthemum 

Numerous  insects 

Self-fertilization  frequent 
in  absence  of  insects 

Sueezeweed 

Helenium 
autumuale 

Flies,  butterflies, 
and  bees 

Disk  florets  contain  both 
pistils  and  stamens, 
many  florets  apt  to  be 
stiginatic  only 

Lance-leaved 

tiek-seed, 

(; olden  Coreopsis. 

Core6])sis 
lanceolata 

Flies  aiul 
butterflies 

Disk  flowers  perfect,  ray- 
flowers  without  anthers 
or  stigmas 

Larger 

Bur-Marigold 

Tall  or  Giant 

Snnflower 

Bidens  ehrysan- 
themoides 

Many  insects 

Disk  flowers  perfect,  self- 
fertilization  usual 

HeliAnthus 
giganteus 

Disk  flowers  perfect,  self- 
fertilization  usual 

False  Sunflower, 
or  Ox-eye 

Heliopsis 
laevis 

. 

Disk  flowers  perfect,  self- 
fertilizatiou  usual 

Black-eyed  Susan, 
or  Cone-Flower 

Kudbeckia 
hirta 

" 

Disk  flowers  i)erfect,  self- 
fertihzation  usual 

Orange  or  Tawnyl      Ilieracium 
Hawkweed       |    paniculatnm 

Flies  and 
smaller  bees 

Connnon 
Dandelion 

Taraxacum 
Dens-leonis 

Many  insects 

Flowers  of  early  spring 
and  of  late  fall  not  vis- 
ited by  insects,  but  are 
fertile,  self-fertilization 
common 

189 


Supplement 

Composite  Family — Continued 

Common  Name 

Scientific 
Name 

Insect 

ViSITOKS 

Method  of  Prevent- 
ing OK  Limiting  Self- 
fertilization,  etc. 

Sow  Thistle 

Sonchus 
Arvensis 

Many  insects 

Self-fertilizaliou  common 

Lobelia  Family  (Lobeliaceae) 

(ireat  Blue 
Lobelia 

Lobelia 
syphilitica 

Bumblebees 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigmas.  Stigmas  pro- 
trude far  beyond  anthers 

Campanula  Family  {Campa.nuta.ee ae) 

Venus's 
Looking-glass 

Specularia 
perfoliata 

Many  insects 

Produces  both  showy  and 
cleistogamous  flowers 
Anthers  mature  before 
stigmas 

Common 
Harebell 

Campanula 
rotundifolia 

Bees    and    butter-  Anthers    mature     before 
flies  (flies  and         stigma 
beetles) 

Heath  Family  {Ericaceae) 

Trailing   Arbutus,,        Epigaea 
or               j         repens 
GroTuid  Laurel 

Female  bumble- 
bees, 
flies  and  bees 

In  a  transition  state, 
showing  a  tendency 
toward  trimorphism 

Common  or  Black      Gaylussacia 
Huckleberry              resinosa 

Small  bees 

Stigma  protrudes  and 
strikes  incoming  bee 

Andromeda 

Andromeda 
floribunda 

Small  bees        Stigma  protrudes  beyond 
1    anthers.    See  text 

Mountam  Laurel  1         Kdlmia 
1        latlfolia 

Bees             Anthers      concealed      in 
I    pocket.    See  text 

American  or  Great   Rhododendron 
Rhododendron           maximum 

Bees 

Purple  Azalea,  or         Azalea 
Pinxter-tlower            nudiflora 

Female  bees 

Stigma  protrudes  and 
strikes  incoming  bee 

Wintergreen 

Pyrola 
rotundifolia 

Bees  and  flies 

Stigma  protrudes  and 
strikes  incoming  bee 

Spotted          1     Chim^phila 
Pipsissewa       '       maculata 

Bees  and  flies 

Stigma  stands  above  an- 
thers 

1 
Holly  Family  {Aquifotiaceae) 

Mountain  Holly 

Nemopanthies      Several  insects, 
Canadensis       no  special  visitor 

Staminate  flowers  sepa- 
rate from  stigmatic  ones 

Staminate  flowers  sepa- 
rate from  stigmatic  ones 

Black  Alder 

Ilex  verticillata!  Several  insects, 
1  no  special  visitor 

Primrose  Family  {Primutaceae) 

Shooting  Star,  or       Dodecatbon               Female 
American  Cowslip          Meadia               bumblebees 

Stigma  protrudes  and 
strikes  incoming  bee 

Star-flower,  or 
American  Chick- 
weed 

Trientalis         Pollen-collecting 
Americana           bees  and  flies 

Stigma  matures  before  the 
anthers 

190 


Supplcnioit 

Primrose  Family—  Continued 

Common  Name 

Scientific 
Name 

Tv«wfT            Method  of  Pkevent- 
VT«i'rr,««        ,  ^><^  OK  Limiting  Self- 
V  ibiiuith            fertilization,  etc. 

Lance-leavecl 
Loosestrife 

Lysimachia           Female  bees 
lauceolata             (macropis) 

Stamens  drawn  away  from 
style  by  expanding  pet- 
als during  time  stigma  is 
rec.'ptive 

C'onnnou 
Pimpernel 

Anagallis         Pollen-collecting   Self-fertilization  frequent 
arvensis                   insects           1 

Bladderwort  Family  {Lentibutaceae) 

Large                 Utricularia 
Bladderwort              vulgaris 

1 
1 

Bees  and  flies 

As  soon  as  the  inconung 
insect  fertilizes  the  stig- 
ma, It  rolls  up  to  prevent 
contact  -with  its  own 
pollen 

Bignonia  Family  {Btgnoniaceae) 

Wild             1         Tecoina         l     Hummingbird     Lobes    of     stigma    close 
Trumpet-flower   I        radicans        1    {Large  moths)    |    when  touched 

Broom-Rape  Family  {Orobanchaceae) 

Beech-drops,  or 
Cancer-root 

Epiphegus 
Virginiana 

Several  insects,    Produces     cleistogamous 
no  special  visitor     buds.     Perfect  flowers 
are  sterile 

Figwort  Family  {Schrophulariaceae) 

Common  Mullein        Yerbascum 
Thapsus 

Pollen-collecting 
bees  and  flies 

Stigma  protrudes  and 
strikes  incoming  bee 

Culver's  Koot 

Veronica 
Virginica 

Many  insects 

Anthers     mature   before 

the  stigmas 

Brookhme.  or 
Water  Speedwell 

Veronica 
Americana 

"          " 

Anthers  mature  before 
tlie  stigmas 

Common 
Speedwell 

Veronica 
officinalis 

Growing  in  dense  clusters, 
cross-fertilization  is  ef- 
fected by  insects  crawl- 
ing over  tlie  head 

Blue-eyed  Mary, 

or  Broad-leaved 

Colhnsia 

Colliusia 
verna 

Pollen-collecting 
bees  (Osmia) 

Two  sets  of  stamens  (long 
and  short)  maturing  at 
ditterent  intervals 

Blue  or  Wild 
Toadflax 

Liuaria 
Canadensis 

Long-tongued  bees 
and  i)utterflles 

Butter-aud-Eggs, 

or 
Common  Toadflax 

Linaria 
Vulgaris 

Bumblel>ees  and 
butterflies 

Stamens  of  two  lengths 
Self-fertilization  possi- 
ble 

Large  Purple 
Gerardia 

(Jer^dia 
j)urpurea 

Bees 

Stigma  protrudes  beyond 
anthers 

Downy  False 
Foxglove 

(lerftdla 
flava 

Bumblebees 

Stigma  protrudes  beyond 
anthers  and  strikes  in- 
conung pollen-laden  bee 

191 


Siippleniciit 

Fig  wort  Family — Continued 

Common  Name 

Scientific 
Name 

Insect 
Visitors 

Method   of    Prevent- 
ing OR  Limiting  Self- 
fertilization,  ETC. 

Monkey  Flower 

Minnilus 
ringens 

Long-tougued 
bees 

Two  sets  of  stamens  and 
sensitive  stigma  whicli 
rolls  up  after  contact 
with  visitor,  exposing 
stamens  which  then 
shed  their  pollen 

Figwort 

Scrophularia    1           Wasps           Stigmas     mature    before 
nodosa        ]                                ;    anthers.    See  text 

Suake-bead,               Clielone 
or  Balmouy                glabra 

Bumblebees 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigma 

Hairy  Beard 

Tongue 

Pentstemon 
pubescens 

Long-tongued 
bees 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigmas 

Scarlet  Painted    i       Castilleia 
CUjj              ■        coccinea 

Humming  birds 

Wood  Betony           Pedicularis      \             Bees 
Canadensis      1 

See  text 

Acanthus  Family  {Acanthkcea.e) 

Hairy  Kuellia     1  Ruellia  ciliosa  1     Many  insects      jBears    both     showy   and 
1                              1                                 1    cleistoganious  flowers 

Vervain  Family  CVerbenaceae) 

Blue  Vervain     i        Verbena        I         Bees  and         i 
1         hastiita         1        butterflies        1 

Mint  Family  {Labiktae) 

Spear  Mint          Mentha  viridis  1      Many  insects 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigmas 

Horsebalm       {      Colliusonia            Bumblebees 
Canadensis      1 

Stigma  matures  before 
anthers 

Creeping  Thyme 

Thymus 
Serpyllum 

Bumblebees,  flies. 
and  butterflies 

Some  flowers  perfect,  oth- 
ers stigmatic,  others 
staminate 

Oswego  Tea, 
or  Bee-Balm 

Monarda 
didyma 

"          " 

Wild  Bergamot 

Monarda                 "           " 
fistuldsa 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigmas 

Ground  Ivy 

Nepeta              Many  insects 
Glechoma 

i 

Anthers  and  stigmas  ma- 
ture at  dirt'erent  periods 
in  larger  flowers,  small 
flowers  stigmatic  only 

False 
Dragon-Head 

Physostegia 
Virginiaiia 

Bumblebees 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigma 

Self-Heal, 
or  Heal-all 

Brunella 
vulgaris 

Bumblebees 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigma 

Skullcap 

Scutlellaria 
lateriflora 

Bees 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigma 

Common 
Motherwort 

Leonilrus 
Cardiaca 

Bumblebees 

Two  lengths  of  stamens 

192 


Supplement 

Borage  Family  (fBorragina.cea.e) 

Common  Name 

Scientific 
Name 

Insect 
Visitors 

Method  of  Prevent- 
ing OR  Limiting  Self- 
fertilization,  ETC. 

Viper's  Bugloss 

Ecbium 
vnlgare 

Sixty-seven  spe- 
cies of  insects 

Anthers  mature  before 
stignia 

Vir.uiiiia  or 

Smooth  Luiifiwort, 

or  Cowslip 

Mertensia 
Virginica 

Many  insects 

Anthers  widely  separated 
from  stigma 

True 
Forget-me-not 

Myosotis 
palustris 

Flies  or  bees 

Anthers  and  stigma  so 
arranged  that  they  are 
touched  by  opposite 
sides  of  the  tongue  of 
the  visiting  insect.  Self- 
fertilization  possible 

Common 
Houiidstongue 

Cynoglossum 
officinale 

Bees  and 
butterflies 

Self-fertilization  possible 

( 

Beggar's  Lice 

Cynoglossum 
Morisoni 

Pollen-gathering  iSee  text 
bees             1 

Waterleaf  Family  {Hydrophyttkceae) 

Virginia          1  Ilvdrophylliim         Bumblebees       1  Anthers    mature     before 
Waterleaf        1     Virtiinicnm                                       1    stigma 

Polemoniom  Family  (Polemomaceae) 

Sweet 
William 

Phlox           Butterflies  cbiefly 
maculata 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigmas,  but  self-fertili- 
zation is  common 

Downy 
Bblox 

Phlox 
pilosa 

" 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigmas,  but  self-fertili- 
zation IS  common 

Ground  or 
Moss  rink 

Phlox 
subulata 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigmas,  but  self-fertili- 
zation is  common 

Convolvulus  Family  ( Con<vot<vuta.ceac) 

Morning-glory 

Iponio&a 
purpurea 

Bees 

Stigma  matures  before 
anthers 

Wild  Potato  Vine 

Ipomoea 
pandurata 

Bumblebees 

Field  Bindweed 

Convolvus 
arvensis 

Bees,  flies,  and 
beetles 

Stigmas  protrude  beyond 
anthers.  Self-fertilization 
possible  owing  to  droop- 
ing position  of  flower 

Great  Bindweed 

Calystegia 
sepium 

Bees,  moths, 
and  flies 

Self-fertilization  possible 

Nightshade  Family  {SoUnaceae) 

Black  or  Common 
Nigbtshade 

Solanum 
nigrum 

Pollen-gathering 
female  bumble- 
bees chiefly 

(Jround  Cberry    ]        ph<salis 

1  Pennsylvanica 

Bees              Stigma    matures     before 
anthers,  also  protrudes 
i    beyond  them 

Common                   Datura- 
Thorn-npi-li'            Stramnuium 

Si)hinx  moth 

193 


Supplement 


Gentian  Family  {Gentianace^e) 


COM3ION  Na.^ie 


Scip:NTrFic 
Mame 


INSECT 

Visitors 


Method  of  Prevent- 
ing OK  Limiting  Self- 
fertilization,  ETC. 


Rosy  Centaury 


Sal)batia 
augulaiis 


Fringed  Gentian 


Gentiana 
criuita 


Many  insects 


Anthers  mature  before 
stigma  and  open  out^ 
ward 


Bees  and 
bumblebees 


Anthers  mature  before 
stigma  and  open  out- 
ward 


Closed  or  Blind 
Gentian 


Gentiana       | 
Andrewsii      i 


Bumblebees 


Anthers    mature     before 

stigma   and    open   out- 

I    ward 


Dogbane  Family  (ApocynAceae) 


Spreading 
Dogbane 


Apocynum 

Androsa:'mif(') 

lium 


Bees,  flies,  and 
butterflies 


Tollen     concealed   in   \ 
j    shaped  cavity  well  away 
from  stigma 


Indian  Hemp 


Apocynum 
cannabinum 


Bees,  flies, 
and  beetles 


Pollen  secreted  well  awav 
1    from  stigmatic  cavity 


Milkweed  Family  (c/lsdepiadaceae) 


Butterfly-weed 


Common 
Milkweed 


Asclepias 
tuberosa 


Butterflies 


Pollen  concealed  in  V 
shaped  cavity  well  away 
from  stigma 


A  sc  lepras 
Cornuti 


Bees,  flies,  and 
butterflies 


Pollen  concealed  in  \- 
{  shaped  cavity  well  away 
I    from  stigma ' 


Birthwoft  Family  {Aristotochiaceae) 


Wild  Ginger 


Asaruni 
Canadense 


Flies 


Stigma    matures     before 
anthers 


Pokeweed  Family  (Phytolaccaceae) 


Pokeweed 


Phytolacca 
decandra 


Bees  and  flies 


!  Anthers  generally  mature 
i    before  stigma 


Buckwheat  Family  iPolygonaceae) 


Common 
Persicaria 


Polygonum     I     Bees  and  flies 
PennsyivanicumI 


Lizard's-Tail  Family  (Saururaceae) 


Lizard's- tail 


Saururus 
cernuus 


Flies 


Laurel  Family  (Lauraceae) 


Spicebush 


Lindera 
Benzoin 


Many  insects 


Stigmatic  flowers  gener- 
ally separate  from  stam- 
in  ate  ones 


Spurge  Family  (Euphorbiaceae) 


Flowering  Spurge  I 


Euphorbia 
corollata 


Flies 


iStaminate    flowers   sepa- 
I    rate  from  stigmatic  ones 


194 


Supplcmoit 

Arum  Family  {Arkceae) 

Common  Name 

SCIKNTIFIO 

Name 

Insect 

ViSITOKS 

Method   of   Prevent- 
ing OR  Limiting  Self- 
fertilization,  ETC. 

Jack-iu-lbe-Piilpit 

or 

Indian  Turnip 

Arissfema 
triphyllum 

Gnats  and 
other  insects 

Stigmatic  flowers  gener- 
ally separate  from 
staminate  flowers.  In 
transition  stage  becom- 
ing dioecious 

Water  Arum 

Calla  palustris 

Small  insects, 
midges,  etc. 

Lower  flowers  staminate 
and  stigmatic.  Upper 
flowers  staminate  only 
Stigma  matures  before 
anthers 

Skunk  or  Swamp     Symploc^irpus 
Cabbage                  fuetidus 

Flies 

Stigma  matures  before 
a  n  t  h  e  r  s.  Anthers 
turned  away  from  pis- 
til.   Odor  unpleasant 

Golden  Club              Oroutium 
I       aciuaticum 

Flies  and  midges  Cross-fertilized  by  insects 
1    crawling  over  it 

Water-Plantain  Family  {AUsmacesLe) 

Water  Plantain    i         Alisma 
!        riantaiio 

Fhes 

Stamens  radiate  away 
from  stigma 

Broad-leaved 
arrow-liead 

Sagittaria 
variabilis 

Bees  and  flies 

Stigmatic  flowers  sepa- 
rate from  staminate 
ones 

Pickerel- Weed  Family  {Pontederiaceae) 

Pickerel- Weed    i      Pontederia      1     Bees  and  flies     iTrimorphic 
1         cordata        1                                 1 

Orchis  Family  {Orchidaceae) 

Sbowy  Orchis     |           Orchis         |           Female 

siK'ctabilis      \       bumblebees 

See  text 

The  Purple- 
Fringed  Orchid 
(smaller) 

11  a  ben  aria 
psycodes 

Butterflies 

See  text 

The  Kagged 
Orchid 

Habenaria 
lac era 

Butterflies 

See  text 

The  Great  Green 
Orchis 

Habenaria      ',    Butterflies  and 
orbiculata      1     smaller  moths 

See  text 

The  Rattlesnake 
Plantain 

Goodyera 

Bees 

See  text 

Arethusa 

Arethusa 
bnlbosa 

'* 

See  text 

Pogonia 

PogAnia 
ophioglossoides 

" 

See  text 

Moccasin  Flower 

Cypripedium 
acaule 

Bees  and 
biunblebees 

See  text 

Amaryllis  Family  {Amaryttidaceae) 

Yellow          1        Hypoxis        1        Small  bees       .Stamens     radiate     away 
Star  Grass       1          erecta                    and  flies         1    from  stigma 

195 


— ' — ^1 

Suppleinciit 

Smilax  Family  {SmilAceae) 

Common  Name 

Scientific 
Name 

Insect 
Visitors 

Method  of  Pkevent- 
iNCx  OK  Limiting  Self- 
fertilization,  ETC. 

Carrion  Flower 

Smilax 
herbaeea 

Green  flesh  flies 

Staminate  flowers  sepa- 
rate from  stigmatic  ones 

Iris  Family  (Iradaceae) 

Larger  Blue  Flag 

Iris  versicolor 

Bees  and  bumble- 
bees 

Stigmatic  surface  covered 
by  flexible  flap,  which 
insect  opens  as  it  with- 
draws proboscis  and 
body  from  flower.  An- 
thers face  away  from 
stigma 

Lily  Family  {LiUkceae) 

Great  Flowered 
White  Trillium 

Trillium 
grandiflorum 

Bees 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigma 

Purple  Trillium, 
or  Blrtlaroot 

Trillium 
erectum 

Green  flesh  flies 
and  beetles 

Evil  smelling.  Self-fertili- 
zation possible. 

Nodding  Trillium 

Trillium 
cernuum 

Bumblebees 

Anthers    mature    before 

stigma 

Indian 
Cucumber-root 

Medeola 
Yirginica 

No  special  visitor, 
many  insects 

Styles  much  longer  than 
stamens 

Blazing  Star, 

or 

Devil's  Bit 

Chamslirium 
luteum 

Several  insects, 
no  special  visitor 

Stigmatic  flowers  on  sep- 
arate plants  from  the 
staminate  ones 

American 
AVhite  Hellebore 

Veratvum 
viride 

Fhes 

Anthers  mature  before 
stigmas 

Belhvort 

Uviilaria 
perfoliata 

Female  bees 
bumblebees 

Stigma  protrudes  beyond 
anthers;  strikes  incom- 
ing bee 

Wild  Spilcenard,  or 

False  Solomon's 

Seal 

Smilacina 
racemosa 

Bees 

Stigma  matures  before 
anthers 

Smaller 
Solomon's  Seal 

Polygonatum 
biflorum 

Bees 

Self-fertilization  quite  fre- 
quent 

AVild  Orange-Eed 
Lily 

Lllium 
Philadelphicum 

Pollen-gathering 
bees 

Canada  Lily 

Lilium 
Canadeuse 

Pollen-gathering 
bees,  butterflies 

Drooping  position  of 
flower  r  e  n  d  e  r  s  self- 
fertilization  difficult 

Turk's  Cap 

Lilium 
superbura 

Pollen-gathering 
bees,  butterflies 

Drooping  position  of 
flower  renders  self- 
fertilization  difficult 

Yellow  Adder's 
Tongue,  or  Dog- 
tooth Violet 

Erythronium 
Americaniun 

Small  bees,  butter-  Self-fertilization  common 
flies,  and  flies 

Wild  Hyacinth    i    Scilla  Fraseri 
1 

Bees,  flies,  and 
butterflies        1 

196 


Siipplcinciit 


Spidenvort  Family  {Commelynaceae) 


Common  Name 


Virginia  or 

Common  Day 

Flower 


Scientific 
Name 


Insect 
Visitors 


Commelyna 
Virginica 


Pollen-collecting 
bees 


Method    of   Prevent 
ING  OR  Limiting  Self- 
fertilization,  ETC. 


Spiderwort 


Tra(lescS,ntia 
Virginica 


Pollen-collecting 
bees 


Stigma  separated  from 
anthers,  extending  so 
far  beyond  them  that 
self-fertilization  is  im 
probable 


197 


219  YflBR  27711 

05/13/9B  41245     ^     IJ 


